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Please note: This site is an on-going expose' of the lies and falsifications of the Albino peoples history. Accordingly new pages like this one will contain the most recently acquired information, which may or may not be updated on older pages. Likewise, new information on future pages may not be undated on this page. Therefore the best procedure when looking for particular information is to use the search feature at the top of our main menu pages.

 

Jamaica: the Maroons, the Black Irish, and perhaps the last Black Pope

 


Background: In the beginning, as Humans started to leave Africa, included with the second (OOA) group were the Albinos of Caucasian phenotype Africans (Horn Africans, Dravidians (Indians) who were probably motivated by a quest for relief from the heat and burning Sunshine of southern Africa - and relief from the torment heaped upon them by normal Africans. Even today, superstitious Blacks of southern Africa; maim and mutilate Albinos in the ignorant belief that their body parts process magical properties, which they use in rituals. After they crossed the Arabian Peninsula and entered what is now India, the decided to head north and eventually ended up in Central Asia.


There they found a low sunlight intensity environment to their liking, and there they stayed, and flourished!


Then, at about 1,500 B.C. the Central Asian Albinos decided to start leaving their low sunlight intensity environment, and return to India as invading Aryans. Soon after, they headed WEST toward Europe. It can only be guessed at, but perhaps after Millennia in Central Asia, the Albinos forgot that they were Albinos, and what devastating effect strong Sunlight could have on them.


For after their conquest of Europe in the late medieval "Race Wars": Historically camouflaged as Civil Wars in Britain, and the supposedly Religious "Thirty Years Wars" on the continent. Note there really was a religious component to the "Thirty Years Wars": That being the original Black Europeans (Catholics) verses insurgent original Central Asian Albinos (Germanics & Slav's) under the banner of their newly created "PROTEST" or "Protestant" Religions. i.e. Anglican, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Methodist, Lutheran, Baptist, Amish, Evangelicalism, Pentecostalism, Quakers, Seventh-Day Adventism, et al. After the conquest, the Catholic Church was also usurped, but the Slav's in the East (like the Rus (Russians), chose not to completely overhaul the Eastern Orthodox branch that they took from the Byzantines. As a result, their Holy icons still have "Dark" Skin. The later arriving Turks took over the Black Arabs newly created religion of Islam. After their conquest of Europe, the Albinos went on to conquer the entire WORLD, and each place they settled brought them the SAME problems: SUNBURN and SKIN CANCER. Because they don't belong in those places, their one and ONLY home is Central Asia!

 

 

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BACKGROUND - Europe in the Medieval

Feudalism = Slavery

Feudalism was a combination of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labor.

 

{Comment: Notice that feudalism effectively ended at about the time of the

"Thirty Years Wars" and the overthrow of Black rule: suggesting that Serfs were mainly Albinos}.

Fief

A fief was the central element of feudalism and consisted of heritable property or rights granted by an overlord to a vassal who held it in fealty (or "in fee") in return for a form of feudal allegiance and service, usually given by the personal ceremonies of homage and fealty. The fees were often lands or revenue-producing real property held in feudal land tenure: these are typically known as fiefs or fiefdoms. However, not only land but anything of value could be held in fee, including governmental office, rights of exploitation such as hunting or fishing, monopolies in trade, and tax farms.

Peasant

A peasant is a member of a traditional class of farmers, either laborers or owners of small farms, especially in the Middle Ages under feudalism, or more generally, in any pre-industrial society. In Europe, peasants were divided into three classes according to their personal status: slave, serf, and free tenant. Peasants either hold title to land in fee simple, or hold land by any of several forms of land tenure, among them socage, quit-rent, leasehold, and copyhold. Serfdom is the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism. It was a condition of bondage, which developed primarily during the High Middle Ages in Europe and lasted in some countries until the mid-19th century.

Serfs

Serfs who occupied a plot of land were required to work for the lord of the manor who owned that land, and in return were entitled to protection, justice and the right to exploit certain fields within the manor to maintain their own subsistence. Serfs were often required not only to work on the lord's fields, but also his mines, forests and roads. The manor formed the basic unit of feudal society, and the lord of the manor and his serfs were bound legally, economically, and socially. Serfs formed the lowest social class of feudal society - in reality there was little difference between a Serf and a Slave.

 

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Ferdinand II and Isabel

The Black Spanish monarch at the time of Europe's discovery of the Americas was Ferdinand II (1452–1516), he was King of Sicily from 1468 and King of Aragon from 1479 until his death. As a consequence of his marriage to Isabella I, he was also King of Castile jure uxoris as Ferdinand V from 1474 until her death in 1504. He was recognized as regent of Castile for his daughter and heir, Joanna, from 1508 until his own death. In 1504, after a war with France, he became King of Naples as Ferdinand III, reuniting Naples with Sicily permanently and for the first time since 1458. In 1512, he became King of Navarre by conquest.

AND LATER:

Emperor Maximilian I

Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (1459 – 1519), the son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Eleanor of Portugal, he was also King of the Romans (also known as King of the Germans) from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death, though he was never in fact crowned by the Pope, (the journey to Rome always being too risky). He had ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of his father's reign, from c. 1483. He expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg through war and his marriage in 1477 to Mary of Burgundy, the heiress to the Duchy of Burgundy, but he also lost the Austrian territories in today's Switzerland to the Swiss Confederacy. Through marriage of his son Philip the Handsome to eventual queen Joanna of Castile in 1498, Maximilian helped to establish the Habsburg dynasty in Spain which allowed his grandson Charles to hold the thrones of both Castile and Aragon. Since his father Philip died in 1506, Charles succeeded Maximilian as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, and thus ruled both the Holy Roman Empire and the Spanish Empire simultaneously.

King Ferdinand is best known for he and Isabella sponsoring the first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. That year he also fought the final war with Granada which expunged the last Islamic state on Iberian soil (expulsion of the Moors), thus bringing to a close the centuries-long Reconquista. At his death he was succeeded by Joanna, who co-ruled with her son, Charles V, over all the Iberian kingdoms except Portugal.

Emperor Charles V

Charles V (1500–1558), also known as Charles I of Spain was Duke of Burgundy and ruler of the Netherlands from 1506, ruler of the Spanish Empire from 1516 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1519, until he voluntarily stepped down from these and other positions by a series of abdications between 1554 and 1556. Through inheritance, he brought together under his rule extensive territories in central, western, and southern Europe, and the Spanish colonies in the Americas and Asia. As a result, his domains spanned nearly four million square kilometers, and were the first to be described as "the Empire on which the sun never sets".

 

Evidence indicates that this is a true portrait of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V

 

Charles was the heir of three of Europe's leading dynasties: the Houses of Habsburg, Valois-Burgundy and Trastámara. From his own dynasty, the Habsburgs, he inherited Austria and other lands in central Europe. He was also elected to succeed his Habsburg grandfather, Maximilian I as Holy Roman Emperor, a title held by the Habsburgs since 1440. He inherited the Burgundian Netherlands and the Franche-Comté as heir of the House of Valois-Burgundy. From the Spanish House of Trastámara, he inherited the crowns of Castile, which was in the process of developing a nascent empire in the Americas and Asia, and Aragon. The latter included a Mediterranean empire that extended to Southern Italy. Charles was the first king to rule Castile and Aragon simultaneously in his own right, and, as a result, is sometimes referred to as the first King of Spain. The personal union, under Charles, of the Holy Roman Empire with the Spanish empire resulted in the closest Europe would come to a universal monarchy in the post-classical era.

Fearing that his vast inheritance would lead to the realization of a universal monarchy and that he was trying to create a European hegemony, Charles was the object of hostility from many enemies. His reign was dominated by war, and particularly by three major simultaneous conflicts: the Habsburg-Valois Wars with France, the struggle to halt the Ottoman advance, and the Protestant Reformation resulting in conflict with the German princes.

Christopher Columbus the Slaver:


As we know, Christopher Columbus stumbled across the Americas in 1492: what many don't know is that Columbus, or Cristóbal Colón (to give him his proper spanish name), was a slave trader by trade. He had cut his nautical teeth sailing under a Portuguese flag engaged in the african slave trade a dozen years before heading to the Americas in 1492.

 

 

 


BACKGROUND ON SPANISH DEMOGRAPHICS:
A perfunctory glance at a map will show that Spain was and is the western-most easy entry point to Europe from Africa. And Africans have crossed over to Europe through the narrow Gibraltar Strait since the first migrations out of Africa. Thus regardless of Albino media characterization of Spain, it is a racially and ethnically diverse country. In the CIA Factbook they don't even try to break down the demographics of Spain into the normal racial groups: Quote - Spain = composite of Mediterranean and Nordic types

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From Wiki: Spanish Ethnic groups
Definition of ethnicity or nationality in Spain is fraught politically. The term "Spanish people" (pueblo español) is defined in the 1978 constitution as the political sovereign, i.e. the citizens of the Kingdom of Spain. The same constitution in its preamble speaks of "peoples and nationalities of Spain" (pueblos y nacionalidades de España) and their respective cultures, traditions, languages and institutions. The formerly nomadic Gitanos and Mercheros are distinctly marked by endogamy and discrimination but they are dispersed through the country.

The native Canarians are the descendants of the population of the Canary Islands prior to Spanish colonization in the 15th century. Also included are many Spaniard citizens who are descendents of people from Spain's former colonies, mostly from Equatorial Guinea, Argentina, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, Morocco and the Philippines. There is also a sizable number of Spaniards of Eastern European, Maghrebian, Sub Saharan-African, Asian and Middle Eastern descent.

Native-born Spanish citizens of all ethnic groups make up 86% of the total population, and 14% are immigrants. Among the immigrants, around 57% of them come from Spain's former colonies in Latin America (including those from Cuba, Argentina, Ecuador, Puerto Rico, Chile and Uruguay), Africa and Asia Philippines. The rest are mostly Eastern European (especially Romanians, Bulgarians, Russians, Serbians, Croatians, Bosnians, Ukrainians and Albanians), North and West Africans (notably Moroccans, Algerians, Senegalese, Guineans, Nigerians and Cameroonians), Middle Eastern peoples including the Lebanese and Syrian communities, Indians, Pakistanis and Chinese, as well as a sizable number of citizens from the European Union, as of 2007 mostly Romanians, Bulgarians, British, Portuguese, Polish (central Europe), and Germans.

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All of the above is to frame the fact that the Spain of the 1500s was a very reluctant Slaver. Not only was the Monarchy and Nobility in part Black and Mulattoes, but they had just defeated the honored Moors of North Africa, who had ruled and uplifted Spain for hundreds of years. Thus the beginnings of slavery in the Americas under the Spanish are murky, all we can say with certainty is that they were very uncomfortable with it: not that they were against human exploitation, no, they appear to be only against Black Slavery. Proof of that, is that the Spanish imported to their "HUGE" holdings in the Americas: which were at its greatest extent on the mainland of the Americas was: North America south of Canada and west of the Mississippi River, plus the Florida's, all of present-day Mexico and Central America, except Panama.

Viceroyalty of Peru
After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532, which opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Spanish Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru (a Spanish colonial administrative district), at Lima in 1540. The Viceroyalty of Peru originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima. The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the two Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries.
However, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil. The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. The creation of Viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata (at the expense of Peru's territory) reduced the importance of Lima and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires ( Argentina), while the fall of mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the modern-day countries of Peru, Chile, Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.

Viceroyalty of New Granada
The Viceroyalty of New Granada was the name given on 27 May 1717 to the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire in northern South America, corresponding to modern Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela. The territory corresponding to Panama was incorporated later in 1739, and the provinces of Venezuela were separated from the Viceroyalty and assigned to the Captaincy General of Venezuela in 1777. In addition to these core areas, the territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada included Guyana, southwestern Suriname, parts of northwestern Brazil, northern Peru, Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

 

 

 

Thus contrary to Albino characterizations to explain away the millions of Blacks on the Americas mainland, exclusive of Brazil, the Spanish imported relatively FEW African Slaves! Out of the hugeness of the Spanish Empire on the American MAINLAND: a meager ~500,000 African Slaves were imported by the Spanish. Which was a little more than the number of African Slaves imported to English Canada and the thirteen English colonies comprising the United States: ~350,000 African Slaves. {The great majority of African Slaves went to the Caribbean: ~4.3 million and Brazil: ~3.1 million}. Numbers current as of March 2016.

 

The following tables provide the most current numbers for the importation of Africans into the Americas

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Slave Voyages Consortium at Emory University has been updated for 2021.

The latest version is Slave Voyages v2.2.13. A facsimile of the Table of number of

Slaves landed, and where they were disembarked, and the associated Map, is located here: Click>>>

 

 

 

 

 

Columbus had laid the mental seeds for slavery during his first voyage in 1492, when he found how docile the natives were, the Slaver began to see them as potential Slaves and servants from early on. By the time he had reached Cuba, Columbus had begun to envision large settlements where the Spanish would supervise Indian laborers. He wrote that the Indians were ''fit to be ordered about and made to work, to sow and do everything else that may be needed . . . all that they are ordered to do they will do without opposition.'' He headed back to Spain with between six and nine natives. It is not known how many of the natives died on the long voyage. In Spain, Columbus was proclaimed a hero, and the planning began for a second expedition. Columbus knew that if he could not find the huge wealth of gold and silver that he had anticipated and promised, he need another scheme. That plan was to enslave the natives. He promised the king ''slaves, as many as they shall order.''


On the second voyage, begun in 1493, Columbus ordered natives to be rounded up and returned to Spain to be sold. In February 1494, several dozen Indian slaves arrived in Spain. Columbus expected them to be sold and the money used to buy cattle and supplies to be shipped to the New World. But King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella did not like the plan. They ordered the trade stopped until the matter could be discussed in detail. Still, Columbus continued to ship slaves to Spain. About 1,600 were rounded up in 1495 on the island of Hispaniola. About 550 were put in chains for the voyage to Spain. The others were offered to crew members as personal slaves. On the voyage back, nearly 200 Indians died and about half of those who survived were very sick. Columbus also instituted a system of tribute. The Indians were required to furnish a small quantity of gold every three months. Those who failed to find enough gold - a difficult job on some islands - had their hands cut off.

The Spanish king and queen were doubtlessly revolted by the brutal Albino, and remained undecided about slavery. After ordering the slave trade put on hold, they authorized the sale of slaves, then again changed their minds and said they wanted ''to consult with lawyers, theologians, and specialists in canon law to see whether they can be sold in good conscience.'' Finally, the royal couple ordered the Indian slaves in Spain freed and banned future sales.

 

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A word about King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella: As with all Blacks of the past in Europe, the Albinos have created fake images of them to support their lying history. But as is usually the case, when we can find artifacts outside the normal Albino sphere, we find evidences that prove their lies, such is the case with this portrait of their son Charles V.

 

 

 

 

The papal bull Sublimus Dei of 1537, to which Spain was committed, also officially banned slavery, but it was rescinded a year after its promulgation (clearly Pope Paul III was a Black man, perhaps one of the last Black Popes?), and just as clearly, the fact that he had to rescind means that the Albinos were in the process of taking power. Still, the Spanish were not good people, and used other forms of coerced labor in their colonies instead: such as the Indian Reductions method, the encomienda system, repartimiento, and the mita.

 

Exhibits:

The Sublimis Deus

Sublimus Dei - Pope Paul III (Topic: the enslavement and evangelization of Indians)
Sublimis Deus [English: The sublime God (erroneously cited as Sublimus Dei) is a papal bull promulgated by Pope Paul III on June 2, 1537, which forbids the enslavement of the indigenous peoples of the Americas (called Indians of the West and the South) and all other people. It follows the decree issued by Charles I of Spain in 1530 in which the King prohibited the enslavement of Indians.

The executing brief for the bull ("Pastorale Officium") was annulled by Paul in 1537 at the request of the Spanish who had rescinded the decree previously issued by Charles. The bull is cited at times as evidence of a strong condemnation by the church of slavery in general, but scholars point out that Paul sanctioned slavery elsewhere after the issuing of Sublimis Deus.

The Sublimis Deus reads:


To all faithful Christians to whom this writing may come, health in Christ our Lord and the apostolic benediction. The sublime God so loved the human race that He created man in such wise that he might participate, not only in the good that other creatures enjoy, but endowed him with capacity to attain to the inaccessible and invisible Supreme Good and behold it face to face; and since man, according to the testimony of the sacred scriptures, has been created to enjoy eternal life and happiness, which none may obtain save through faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, it is necessary that he should possess the nature and faculties enabling him to receive that faith; and that whoever is thus endowed should be capable of receiving that same faith. Nor is it credible that any one should possess so little understanding as to desire the faith and yet be destitute of the most necessary faculty to enable him to receive it. Hence Christ, who is the Truth itself, that has never failed and can never fail, said to the preachers of the faith whom He chose for that office 'Go ye and teach all nations.' He said all, without exception, for all are capable of receiving the doctrines of the faith.

The enemy of the human race, who opposes all good deeds in order to bring men to destruction, beholding and envying this, invented a means never before heard of, by which he might hinder the preaching of God's word of Salvation to the people: he inspired his satellites who, to please him, have not hesitated to publish abroad that the Indians of the West and the South, and other people of whom We have recent knowledge should be treated as dumb brutes created for our service, pretending that they are incapable of receiving the Catholic Faith.

We, who, though unworthy, exercise on earth the power of our Lord and seek with all our might to bring those sheep of His flock who are outside into the fold committed to our charge, consider, however, that the Indians are truly men and that they are not only capable of understanding the Catholic Faith but, according to our information, they desire exceedingly to receive it. Desiring to provide ample remedy for these evils, We define and declare by these Our letters, or by any translation thereof signed by any notary public and sealed with the seal of any ecclesiastical dignitary, to which the same credit shall be given as to the originals, that, notwithstanding whatever may have been or may be said to the contrary, the said Indians and all other people who may later be discovered by Christians, are by no means to be deprived of their liberty or the possession of their property, even though they be outside the faith of Jesus Christ; and that they may and should, freely and legitimately, enjoy their liberty and the possession of their property; nor should they be in any way enslaved; should the contrary happen, it shall be null and have no effect. By virtue of Our apostolic authority We define and declare by these present letters, or by any translation thereof signed by any notary public and sealed with the seal of any ecclesiastical dignitary, which shall thus command the same obedience as the originals, that the said Indians and other peoples should be converted to the faith of Jesus Christ by preaching the word of God and by the example of good and holy living. [Dated: May 29, 1537]

Indian reductions

Indian reductions (Spanish: reducciones) were mission towns built by Spanish Jesuit missionaries in Central and South America and populated by the forcible relocation of indigenous populations. The goal was to consolidate previously scattered populations to exert more control over them including increasing baptisms and to improve the flow of silver to the government in Spain. The local populations, who had adapted to a way of life suitable to the many, minor microclimates throughout the Andes, were uprooted and forced to assimilate. The new towns were sometimes located in areas know to be prone to natural disasters including flooding. The large population centers disrupted family and kinship relationships. The indigenous people were exposed to many new diseases like Smallpox, for which they had no immunity, and many died as a result.

Encomienda

Encomienda, in colonial Spanish America, legal system by which the Spanish crown attempted to define the status of the Indian population in its American colonies. It was based upon the practice of exacting tribute from Muslims and Jews during the Reconquista (“Reconquest”) of Muslim Spain. Although the original intent of the encomienda was to reduce the abuses of forced labor (repartimiento) employed shortly after the discovery of the New World, in practice it became a form of enslavement. As legally defined in 1503, an encomienda (from encomendar, “to entrust”) consisted of a grant by the crown to a conquistador, soldier, official, or others of a specified number of Indians living in a particular area. The receiver of the grant, the encomendero, could exact tribute from the Indians in gold, in kind, or in labor and was required to protect them and instruct them in the Christian faith. The encomienda did not include a grant of land, but in practice the encomenderos gained control of the Indians’ lands and failed to fulfil their obligations to the Indian population. The crown’s attempts to end the severe abuses of the system with the Laws of Burgos (1512–13) and the New Law of the Indies (1542) failed in the face of colonial opposition and, in fact, a revised form of the repartimiento system was revived after 1550. The encomienda was designed to meet the needs of the colonies’ early mining economy. With the catastrophic decline in the Indian population and the replacement of mining activities by agriculture, the system lost its effectiveness and was gradually replaced by the hacienda system of landed estates. The encomienda was not officially abolished, however, until the late 18th century.

Repartimiento

Repartimiento, ( Spanish: “partition,” “distribution”) also called mita, or cuatequil, in colonial Spanish America, a system by which the crown allowed certain colonists to recruit indigenous peoples for forced labor. The repartimiento system, frequently called the mita in Peru and the cuatequil (a Spanish-language corruption of Nahuatl coatequitl or cohuatequitl) in New Spain (Mexico), was in operation as early as 1499 and was given definite form about 1575. About 5 percent of the indigenous peoples in a given district might be subject to labor in mines and about 10 percent more for seasonal agricultural work. A colonist who wanted a repartimiento had to apply to the viceroy or the audiencia (provincial appeals court), stating that the supplemental labor required on his plantation or ranch or in his mine would provide the country with essential food and goods.

Legally, the work period was not to exceed two weeks (five in the mines), three or four times annually, and wages were to be paid. Those requirements were practically ignored, however, and, because the forced laborers were often brutally treated, the Spanish government modified the system in 1601 and 1609. Under the new arrangement, 25 percent of the indigenous peoples in a given district were required to work for the Spaniards, but they were free to choose their own employer and term of service. The new system remained legally in force down to the end of the colonial period (c. 1820). In practice, however, impressment of indigenous peoples under the earlier system continued in spite of additional royal prohibitive legislation in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Slavery Timeline

1500–1699
1537: Pope Paul III forbids slavery of the indigenous peoples of the Americas as well as of any other new population that would be discovered, indicating their right to freedom and property. However, only Catholic countries apply it, and state that they cannot possibly enforce what happens in the distant colonies (Sublimus Dei).
1542: Spain enacted the New Laws, abolishing slavery of Native Americans in 1542. But replaced it with other systems of forced labor such as repartimiento.
1569: An English court case involving Cartwright, who had brought a slave from Russia, ruled that English law could not recognize slavery.
1588: The Third Statute of Lithuania abolishes slavery.
1595: A law is passed in Portugal banning the selling and buying of Chinese slaves.
1590: Toyotomi Hideyoshi bans slavery in Japan. However, it continued as a punishment for criminals.
19 February 1624: The King of Portugal forbids the enslavement of Chinese of either sex.
1683: the Spanish Crown legally abolish the slavery of indigenous Mapuche prisoners of war in Chile.

 

 

 

 

 

 

SLAVERY IN THE CARIBBEAN WAS BRUTAL AND ATROCIOUS!

 

Wiki article

Thomas Thistlewood

Thomas Thistlewood (16 March 1721 – 30 November 1786) was a British landowner and estate overseer who migrated to western Jamaica. He is remembered for his diary, which became an important historical document on slavery and history of Jamaica. Thomas Thistlewood was born in Tupholme, Lincolnshire, UK. In 1750 he left Britain and migrated to Jamaica, where he lived until his death in 1786. He became a small landowner and the overseer of the Egypt sugar plantation, which was located near the Savanna la Mar. His diary, "The Diary of Thomas Thistlewood" is a detailed record of his life and daily activities, providing a rare and detailed insight into plantation life, from agricultural techniques to slave-owner relations. With almost no restraints placed on their personal freedom, whites ruled their slaves with a degree of violence that left outside observers aghast. Thistlewood routinely punished his slaves with fierce floggings and other harsh punishments, some of them sickeningly ingenious. One of his favorites was "Derby's dose," in which a slave was forced to defecate into the offending slave's mouth, which was then wired shut for four or five hours.

 

 

Barbados art helps us differentiate between "Real" History, and the falsehoods of Albino history.

 

Richard Newton (1777–1798) was an English caricaturist.

This short-lived but brilliant 18th-century caricaturist published his first caricature at thirteen. His work included definitive caricatures expressing the English prejudice of the Scots. He worked for radical publisher William Holland, producing powerful anti-slavery works among his output. This caricature of his is important in "Who" it depicts as the brutal Slave Master.

 

 

 

 

Agostino Brunias (1730 – 1796) was a London-based Italian painter from Rome. Strongly associated with West Indian art, he left England at the height of his career to chronicle Dominica and the neighboring islands of the West Indies. Note the difference between what Albino historians depict in the colonial caribbean, and what Augostino Brunias depicts. To explain away these differences, the Albinos declare that his art was escapist and romantic.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Americas were first peopled by Blacks from what appears to be many different locations around the world, circa 100,000 B.C. Then by Mongols who came across the Bering Straits, circa 12,000 B.C.

Naturally Albinos do their best to confuse the issue, often by simply misidentifying people.

See the Pre-historic America section.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Some have described these Black Carib Indians as the offspring of Runaway African Slaves and Non-Black native Indians - even some Black institutions have stupidly accepted that nonsense, which is no surprise. As always when dealing with what the lying Albinos say, one must always think "Critically". i.e. The British outlawed the Slave trade in 1807, but did not outlaw Slavery until 1833. The painter of these paintings "Augustin Brunias" died in 1796: at the time he painted those people, if what the Albinos say was true: they and their still living parents, would have been subject to re-capture and a return to Slavery. They would certainly not have been allowed such easy movement and social intercourse, for fear their example would have fomented rebellion among Slaves.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

More Paintings by Agostino Brunias

 

 

 

 

 

 

https://jcb.lunaimaging.com/luna/servlet/detail/JCB~1~1~1923~3030003:Pacification-with-the-Maroon-Negroe

 

Brown University is a private Ivy League research university in Providence, Rhode Island. It is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the United States, founded in 1764 as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Which means it educates some of Americas "Wealthiest" students. We are wondering WHY they PURPOSELY confused the NATIVE AMERICAN Carib's on St. Vincent with the "Mixed" Maroons of Jamaica. (Of course it's just another Albino ploy to confuse Black history).

If you click the link to Brown University, you will find these notes with the picture:
Thought to represent the climax of the First Carib War, when a treaty was made in 1773 between the British and the black Carib chiefs in St. Vincent. The treaty demanded that the Caribs lay down their arms. A British soldier at the far right holds a map of St. Vincent with the boundaries of the Caribs and the English plantations on it. The man seated with his arm outstretched may be Sir William Young, an appointee in the British West Indies. One of the Carib chiefs may be Chatoyer. This image has also been used to illustrate scenes of maroon confrontation in Jamaica and Dominica. Because it was printed at the time of the Haitian revolution, it also became a symbol of British order and control in comparison with the disastrous French rule in the Caribbean.


 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Clearly the evidence indicates that life and society in the colonial Caribbean was different from what the Albinos say. So what does all of this mean? It means that Blacks need to do a lot more research into their own history!

 

 

 

 

 

 

Jamaica

 

Which brings us to the English speaking Island of Jamaica, which was the destination for the largest single bulk of African Slaves in the Caribbean: under the Spanish 3,232 were imported, under the British (931,978). But whose Spanish beginnings betray the true racial complexity of the Americas.


Click here for Jamaican History: courtesy the Jamaica government

The Discovery of Jamaica


On May 5, 1494 Christopher Columbus, the European explorer, who sailed west to get to the East Indies and came upon the region now called the West Indies, landed in Jamaica. This occurred on his second voyage to the West Indies. Columbus had heard about Jamaica, then called Xaymaca, from the Cubans who described it as “the land of blessed gold”. Columbus was soon to find out that there was no gold in Jamaica.

On arrival at St Ann’s Bay, Columbus found the Arawak Indians inhabiting the island. Initially, Columbus thought these Indians were hostile, as they attacked his men when they tried to land on the island. As he was determined to annex the island in the name of the king and queen of Spain, he was not deterred. Columbus also needed wood and water and a chance to repair his vessels. He sailed down the coast and docked at Discovery Bay. The Arawaks there were also hostile to the Spaniards. Their attitudes changed however, when they were attacked by a dog from one of the Spanish ships and Columbus’ cross-bow men. Some of the Arawaks were killed and wounded in this attack. Columbus was then able to land and claim the island.

The Spaniards, when they came, tortured and killed the Arawaks to get their land. They were so overworked and ill-treated that within a short time they had all died. The process was aided by the introduction of European diseases to which the Arawaks had little or no resistance. The island remained poor under Spanish rule as few Spaniards settled here. Jamaica served mainly as a supply base: food, men, arms and horse were shipped here to help in conquering the American mainland. Fifteen years later in 1509, after their first visit to the island, the first Spanish colonists came here under the Spanish governor Juan de Esquivel. They first settled in the St. Ann’s Bay area. The first town was called New Seville or Sevilla la Nueva. Towns were little more than settlements. The only town that was developed was Spanish Town, the old capital of Jamaica, then called St. Jago de la Vega. It was the centre of government and trade and had many churches and convents. The little attention the colony received from Spain soon led to a major reason for internal strife. This contributed to the weakening of the colony in the last years of Spanish occupation. The governors were not getting proper support from home and quarrels with church authorities undermined their control. Frequent attacks by pirates also contributed to the colony’s woes.

The English Attack
On May 10, 1655, Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables led a successful attack on Jamaica. The Spaniards surrendered to the English, freed their slaves and then fled to Cuba. It was this set of freed slaves and their descendants see JNL material below - who became known as the Maroons.

The early period of English settlement in Jamaica, drew much attention to the buccaneers based at Port Royal. Buccaneering had begun on the islands of Tortuga and Hispaniola. They were a wild, rough and ruthless set of sea rovers. They took their loot of gold, silver and jewels to Port Royal. Port Royal prior to this time was an insignificant town in Jamaica. Under the buccaneers’ leadership the town, within a decade and a half, grew to become known as one of the “wealthiest and wickedest city in the world”.

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Wiki:
The Jamaican Maroons are descendants of Africans who fought and escaped from slavery and established free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica during the era of slavery. African slaves imported during the Spanish period may have provided the first runaways. Slavery continued after the English took over Jamaica. Africans in Jamaica continually fought and revolted. The revolts had the effect of disrupting the sugar economy in Jamaica and making it less profitable. The revolts simmered down only after the English government promised to free the slaves if they stopped revolting.

It is with this English Wiki of the Maroons that we get to the main point of this paper: it is typical Albino lie that Black = African Slave.
As we have seen from Jamaican history, the Maroons did not escape, supposedly the Spanish freed them. But did they really, and who were the so-called Maroons really?

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Well, according to Africana.com, the former Black history site of Harvard Professors Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Kwame Anthony Appiah, (since sold to conglomerate Time Warner - more on that below):

Quote: The Spanish began importing black slaves shortly after King Ferdinand authorized the governor of Hispaniola (island encompassing present-day Haiti and Dominican Republic) to import Christian blacks (ladinos) from Spain in 1501. The first black slaves brought to Jamaica did not come directly from Africa but were either Africans, or the descendants of Africans, who had been enslaved for a time in Spain. In 1518 King Charles I of Spain (Ferdinand's successor) signed a four-year contract, or asiento, allowing an annual supply of 4,000 African slaves to enter Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico. Slaves then came directly from Africa. By 1611 Jamaica had a population of 558 black slaves, 107 free blacks, and between 1,200 and 1,400 Spaniards.

 

As can be seen in a search of the Emory University database their numbers are quite different. This is quite normal, as new material is constantly being found and used to update our knowledge. Regardless, the point is confirmed that the Spanish imported few Slaves.

 

 

 

 

Ladino people are a mix of mestizo or hispanicized peoples in Latin America, principally in Central America. The demonym Ladino is Spanish, deriving from "latino" and came into use during the colonial era to refer to the Spanish-speaking population that did not belong to the colonial elite of Peninsulares or Criollos, nor to the indigenous peoples. A peninsular was a Spanish-born Spaniard residing in the New World or the Spanish East Indies. The word peninsular makes reference to Peninsular Spain situated on much of the Iberian Peninsula. The Criollo were a social class in the hierarchy of the overseas colonies established by Spain in the 16th century, especially in Hispanic America, comprising the locally born people of confirmed European (primarily Spanish) ancestry. The Criollo class ranked below that of the Iberian Peninsulares. Criollos were higher status/rank than all other castes — people of mixed descent, Amerindians, and enslaved Africans.

 

 

 

Clearly then, if that account is accurate - not necessarily the numbers - the Maroons were actually "MOORS" from North Africa, or indigenous Iberian Blacks such as the Silures described in the book Germany by the Roman historian Tacitus.

Quote: paragraph 11 - Who were the original inhabitants of Britain, whether they were indigenous or foreign, is, as usual among barbarians, little known. Their physical characteristics are various, and from these conclusions may be drawn. The red hair and large limbs of the inhabitants of Caledonia point clearly to a German origin. The dark complexion of the Silures, their usually curly hair, and the fact that Spain is the opposite shore to them, are an evidence that Iberians of a former date crossed over and occupied these parts. [End quote]

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End of the Moor conquest:

In Iberia (Spain), as a result of the Moor conquest, many of the ousted White nobles took refuge in the unconquered north Asturian highlands. From there they aimed to reconquer their lands from the Moors: this war of reconquest is known as the Reconquista. It began in about 900 A.D. when a small Christian enclave of Visigoths in northwestern Spain, named Asturias; initiated conflicts between Christians and Muslims. Soon after, Christian states based in the north and west slowly; in fits and starts, began a process of expansion and reconquest of Iberia over the next several hundred years. The end for the Moors came on January 2, 1492: the leader of the last Moorish City "Granada" (located in southern Spain) surrendered to armies of a recently united Christian Spain (after the marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile). This ended the 800 year reign of the Moors in Iberia. This victory was accompanied by the forced conversion of Spanish Muslims (Moriscos) and Khazar Jews. As a result of the Inquisition, thousands of Khazar Jews fled or were deported to the Maghrib, where many gained influence in government and commerce.

Without much difficulty, Christian Spain imposed its influence on the Maghrib coast by constructing fortified outposts (presidios) and collecting tribute during the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. On or near the Algerian coast, Spain took control of Mers el Kebir in 1505, Oran in 1509, and Tlemcen, Mostaganem, and Ténès, all west of Algiers, in 1510. In the same year, the merchants of Algiers handed over one of the rocky islets in their harbor, where the Spaniards built a fort. The presidios in North Africa turned out to be a costly and largely ineffective military endeavor, that did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fleet. Indeed, most trade seemed to be transacted in the numerous free ports. Moreover, from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, sailing superior ships and hammering out shrewd concessions, merchants from England, Portugal, Holland, France, and Italy, as well as Spain, dominated Mediterranean trade.

 

 

 

Please note that in this painting, the Moors are once again Black people!

Maybe Moors were really Chameleons?

 

 

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Before going on with Jamaica history: please note - The Jamaican governments history and Henry Louis Gates Jr. history of Jamaica, both clearly indicate and unquestioning acceptance of the Albino version of history, which we prove on a daily basis to be lies. So critical judgment should be exercised when reading this short version from the Gates Jamaican history site, which is being used because it includes more interesting details.

 

Jamaica

http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43/130.html

http://africana.com/tt/1122.htm

By Veront Satchell, Africana.com, 1999

Independent country in the Caribbean and a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations, located south of Cuba and west of Haiti in the Caribbean Sea. Jamaica is the third largest island of the Greater Antilles (island chain in the West Indies that encompasses the nations of Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico).

Although Jamaica has a diverse population, Afro-Jamaicans constitute the overwhelming majority. The 1991 census recorded a total population of 2.3 million. Blacks accounted for 2.08 million, or 90.5 percent of the total population, while whites accounted for 5,200, or 0.2 percent. East Indians made up 1.3 percent and Chinese 0.3 percent. Other ethnic groups as well as small numbers of Syrians, Lebanese, and Jews made up 0.5 percent. People of mixed descent accounted for 7.3 percent of the population. Recognition of this diversity led the framers of Jamaica's constitution at independence, in 1962, to choose as the island's motto 'Out of Many, One People,' suggesting that despite racial and ethnic differences, all live united as one Jamaican people.

However, racism and color discrimination-the legacy of more than three centuries of slavery-persist to this day in Jamaica, although in a very subtle and suppressed way. Since slavery was abolished in 1834, blacks have achieved much upward social mobility, primarily through entrepreneurship and education. They seem to control political power, especially since Percival Patterson became prime minister in 1992, the first black man to hold that office. Economic power, however, continues to elude the black majority, and many issues concerning race have not been fully resolved in Jamaica.

EUROPEAN CONQUEST AND COLONIZATION

Archaeological finds suggest that the Native American Tainos were the first to settle the island of Jamaica, which they called Xaymaca (meaning 'land of springs' or 'land of wood and water'). Estimates for the Taino population at the time of the Spanish arrival in the late 1400s vary widely, with the lowest estimates ranging from 6,000 to 9,000 and the highest from 60,000 to 100,000. Taino villages were distributed throughout the island, with the majority situated near the coastline and adjacent to rivers. The Tainos were a seafaring people who relied on fishing to provide a large part of their diet. They also were agriculturalists, cultivating cassava, maize, sweet potatoes, and arrowroot. They traded with Native American communities living on neighboring islands in the Greater Antilles. For administrative purposes, the Tainos divided the island into provinces that were ruled over by a cacique (chief) assisted by subchiefs.

Spanish Conquest

During his second voyage to the Americas, European explorer Christopher Columbus learned of Jamaica from the indigenous people on the island of Cuba. He set foot on the northern part of Jamaica, at present-day Saint Ann's Bay, on May 4, 1494. After defeating the Tainos' initial resistance, Columbus seized the island for Spain. Spain sent Juan de Esquivel to establish a settlement in 1509, beginning Spain's effective colonization of Jamaica. The Spanish established Sevilla la Nueva on the northern part of the island as their first administrative center but abandoned it in 1523 for Saint Jago de la Vega (now Spanish Town) in the south. Interest in Jamaica faded when it became obvious there was no gold, and the island became a backwater in the Spanish Empire. As late as the time of the English conquest in 1655, the island remained underdeveloped, poor, and sparsely populated. The Spanish lived just above subsistence level, developing a small-scale pig and cattle ranching economy. They also practiced small-scale agricultural cultivation for domestic consumption and for sale to the few Europe-bound vessels.

The Spanish colonists instituted a regime of forced labor of the Taino. Although indigenous peoples in the Spanish colonies were legally exempted from slavery by royal decree in 1542, the colonists were able to compel the Tainos to work for them under the systems of encomienda and repartimiento. Overwork in the mines and fields, combined with contact with European diseases, resulted in the annihilation of Jamaica's indigenous population by the mid-1600s.

The Spanish began importing black slaves shortly after King Ferdinand authorized the governor of Hispaniola (island encompassing present-day Haiti and Dominican Republic) to import Christian blacks (ladinos) from Spain in 1501. The first black slaves brought to Jamaica did not come directly from Africa but were either Africans, or the descendants of Africans, who had been enslaved for a time in Spain. In 1518 King Charles I of Spain (Ferdinand's successor) signed a four-year contract, or asiento, allowing an annual supply of 4,000 African slaves to enter Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico. Slaves then came directly from Africa. By 1611 Jamaica had a population of 558 black slaves, 107 free blacks, and between 1,200 and 1,400 Spaniards.

English Conquest

On May 10, 1655, an English expedition, commanded by Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables, landed at the present-day coastal town of Passage Fort, in the southeastern parish of Saint Catherine. This expedition, which had failed to capture Hispaniola, proceeded to claim the island of Jamaica for England. At the time of the English conquest, the Spaniards were unable to effectively resist the invasion because only about 500 of them were armed with weapons. The English ordered the Spanish colonists to deliver all of their slaves and goods and leave the island. Some followed these orders, but a group led by Don Cristabal Arnaldo de Isasi remained and put up guerrilla resistance to the English. Isasi freed the slaves, many of whom retreated with the Spanish rebels into the hills. From there, the Spanish and the freed blacks who had joined them frequently raided and waged guerrilla warfare on English settlements. Isasi, finally overwhelmed by English forces, fled to Cuba for reinforcement. Some of the blacks who had fought with Isasi, recognizing that the Spanish case was lost, defected to the English. A black regiment fighting for the English, led by the former slave Juan de Bolas, proved a decisive factor in the final defeat of the Spanish, marked by Isasi's retreat in 1660.

Jamaica's English-appointed governor Edward D'Oyley compensated the black regiment by officially recognizing their freedom and granting them landholdings. Other formerly Spanish-owned slaves remained autonomous of the colonial administration, living in their own communities as maroons. Spain officially ceded the island to England under the Treaty of Madrid in 1670. The English established a representative system of government, giving white settlers the power to make their own laws through an elected House of Assembly, which acted as a legislative body. The Legislative Council, whose members were appointed by the governor, served an advisory function and took part in legislative debates. This system lasted until it was replaced in 1866 by the crown colony system of government, which stripped the island elite of most of its political power.

THE SLAVE TRADE AND PLANTATION ECONOMY

The English encouraged permanent settlement through generous land grants. In 1664 Sir Thomas Modyford, a sugar plantation and slave owner in Barbados (a Caribbean island of the Lesser Antilles chain), was appointed governor of Jamaica. He brought 1,000 English settlers and black slaves with him from Barbados. Modyford immediately encouraged plantation agriculture, especially the cultivation of cacao and sugarcane. By the early 1700s sugar estates worked by black slaves were established throughout the island, and sugar and its by-products dominated the economy. Other economic activities, including livestock rearing and the cultivation of coffee and pimento (allspice), developed as well.

With the establishment of the plantation system, the slave trade grew. Slaves of both genders and every age were found in all facets of the island's economy, in both rural and urban areas. They were laborers on plantations, domestic servants, and skilled artisans (tradesmen, technicians, and itinerant traders). The wealth created in Jamaica by the labor of black slaves has been estimated at £18,000,000, more than half of the estimated total of £30,000,000 for the entire British West Indies. It has been postulated that the profit generated by the 'triangular trade' (involving sugar and tropical produce from the British Caribbean colonies, the trade in manufactured goods for slaves in Africa, and the trade of slaves in the British Caribbean) financed the Industrial Revolution in Britain.

More than 1 million slaves are estimated to have been transported directly from Africa to Jamaica during the period of slavery; of these, 200,000 were reexported to other places in the Americas. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Akan, Ga, and Adangbe from the northwestern coastal region known as the Gold Coast (around modern Ghana) dominated the slave trade to the island. Not until 1776 did slaves imported from other parts of Africa-Igbos from the Bight of Biafra (southern modern Nigeria) and Kongos from Central Africa-outnumber slaves from the Gold Coast. But slaves from these regions represented 46 percent of the total number of slaves. The demand for slaves required about 10,000 to be imported annually. Thus slaves born in Africa far outnumbered those who were born in Jamaica; on average they constituted more than 80 percent of the slave population until Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807. When Britain abolished the institution of slavery in 1834, Jamaica had a population of more than 311,000 slaves and only about 16,700 whites. [End quote]

 

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Which brings us to information contained in the following book

which further exposes the lies of Albino history.

From review of: Whence the ("Black Irish") of Jamaica?

by JOSEPH J. WILLIAMS, S.J., Ph.D., Litt. D., F.R.S.A., F.R.G.S., F.A.G.S. (New York: Dial Press, 1932.)

Five years residence in Jamaica impressed Father Williams with the fact that
the Jamaica Negroes were unlike all other Negro types that he had seen. Particularly
among those of Gold Coast origin he found claims and remnants of
Judaism. His resultant studies led to his Hebrewisms of West Africa (1930).
But another outstanding fact was the large number of Negroes with pure Irish
names. These negroes could not be explained as descendants of slaves owned by
early Irish colonists, for no such names appear among the land-owners in the survey
of 1670. So Father Williams turns to English records of the crushing of the Irish,
by Cromwell, with consequent deportations of large numbers of Irish as bondmen
or bondmaids to the West Indies-especially Barbados, where such names as
Cavan, Collins, Connolly, Donovan, Duffey, Dunn, Grogan, Kelly, McCann,
McSwiney, McDermott, Moriarity, O’Brien, O’Neal, O’Halloran, Walsh, abound
in the old cemeteries. Father Williams gives pictures of Jamaica negro children
named Collins, Walsh, McKeon, McDermott, Burke, Mackey, McCormack,
Kennedy. His bibliography on the deportations and barbarities includes 175
sources. Beyond this his 100-page monograph does not go.

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Excerpts from the book:

JAMAICA - ARRIVAL 1600S

The Irish arrived in Jamaica over 350 years ago in the mid-1600s at the time of British Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell's capture of Jamaica. When British Admirals Penn and Venables failed in their expedition to take Santo Domingo from the Spanish, they turned their attention to Jamaica, not wanting to return to Cromwell empty-handed. With reinforcements from British-held Barbados (many of whom were Irish) they made quick work of dispatching the weak Spanish defence and soon realized that they needed workers to support their new prize. They looked eastward to islands already under British control, Barbados, St. Lucia, St. Kitts and Montserrat, and imported young, mainly male, bonded servants, many of whom were Irish.

In 1641 Ireland's population stood close to 1.5 million. Following a 1648 battle in Ireland known as the "Siege of Drogheda" in which Irish rebels were brutally subdued, Oliver's son, Henry, was named Major General in command of English forces in Ireland. Under his jurisdiction, thousands of Irish men and women were shipped to the West Indies to provide a source of indentured labour. Between 1648 and 1655, over 12,000 political prisoners alone were sent to Barbados. This was the first set to come involuntarily as prior to that the Irish had willingly chosen to subject themselves to terms of indenture for the chance to start a new life in the New World upon completion of their contracts.

By 1652, Ireland's population had dwindled to a little over half a million famine, rebellion and forced deportation, all factors.Throughout the early years of the 1650s there was a push to send young men and women to the colonies in what the English believed was a "measure beneficial to the people removed, who might thus be made English and Christians; and a great benefit to the West India sugar planters, who desired the men and boys for their bondsmen, and the women and Irish girls in a country where they had only Maroon women and Negresses to solace them" (Williams, 1932, pp. 10-11). The 13-year war from 1641-1654 had left behind large numbers of widows and deserted wives. In addition, many Irish men, their properties confiscated by Cromwell had no means of making a living. By 1655 some 6,400 Irish had been shipped off when in March all orders to capture "all wanderers, men and women and other such Irish in their possession" were revoked (Williams, pp. 12-13).

FIRST STOP

The first stop for many of the Irish, Catholic and non-Catholic, was Barbados where they worked from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. with a two-hour lunch break, under the command of an overseer. Shirt and drawers were their only clothes and their homes, cabins made of sticks and plantain leaves (Williams, 1932, p. 42). Following the 1655 British conquest of Jamaica, Irish labourers were largely sent from Barbados as well as Ireland to get the island up and running under British control. Within a decade, when many Irish had served their terms or indenture, their names begin to appear among the lists of Jamaican planters and settlers (Williams, p. 53).

LAST SHIPMENTS 1800S

It is estimated that somewhere between 30,000 and 80,000 Irish were shipped from Ireland. One of the last shipments was made in 1841 from Limerick aboard the Robert Kerr. The Gleaner noted of these arrivals: "They landed in Kingston wearing their best clothes and temperance medals," meaning they did not drink alcohol (as quoted in Mullally, 2003, part 2, pg. 1). The Gleaner also noted of another set of arrivals in 1842: "The Irish are repeatedly intoxicated, drink excessively, are seen emerging from grog shops very dissolute and abandoned and are of very intemperate habits" (as quoted in Mullally, 2003, part 3, p. 2). So the Irish gained a reputation for being something of a mixed blessing - saints and sinners.

However, other European immigrants did not seem to fare as well as the Irish in the tropical climate. In the mid-1830s, for example, when the government was particularly concerned about replacement labour for the newly-freed slaves on the sugar and coffee plantations, the over 1,000 Germans and close to 200 Portugese from Madeira, the Azores and Portugal notched a high mortality rate. The idea was to eventually create townships for the European immigrants in the island's highlands where the temperature was cooler and they would work as small farmers, labourers and artisans on coffee estates and cattle pens.

 

{Comment: Clearly Albino/White Europeans could not withstand working under the "Burning Caribbean Sun". Thus special accommodations were needed to try and increase their survival rate. The fact that "SOME" Irish, (the Black Irish), needed no such accommodations proves that they were a Black/Dark skinned people, just like the Maltese, the free Negroes in the United States and the Asians who it was hoped could be used to augment them. As a corollary, this also proves it a lie that all, or even most, "Indentures" in the Caribbean were White}.

 

However, this would take time and in order to maintain pre-abolition levels of production, labour was needed in Jamaica's low-lands where the best land for sugar cultivation was located. Hence the implementation of bounties for European immigrants and the institution of ships like the Robert Kerr, known as "man-traps" and sub-agents who wandered into quiet Irish towns and attracted people with the promise for free passage, high wages and the hope of bettering their lives. The immigration of Europeans never filled the abolition labour gap and so by 1840 the government began to look to the Maltese, the free Negroes in the United States and the Asians. In 1842 laws to break up what had been completed of the townships were passed and the idea of highland colonization was abandoned.

 

In these modern times, the look of the "NEW" Irish is celebrated by the Albinos:

 

The Look of the Irish:
It's a Heritage as Plain as the Nose on a Face
By Henry Allen
Washington Post Staff Writer
Friday, March 17, 1995; Page B01

You don't talk much about English faces, Polish faces, Korean faces or Nigerian faces. You never say "He had a face like the map of Belgium."

But Irish faces are artworks, monuments to Irishness, and we are all critics -- who knows how many people chased Sinn Fein leader Gerry Adams around town this week just to see what kind of an Irish face he'd brought with him. (The face of a tough, smart priest, the youngest priest ever to be closest to the cardinal, who, in turn, is afraid of him and doesn't know why.)

So many Irish faces: "The common classes are strongly marked with the national peculiarity of features, and by this they are readily recognized in other countries." -- "A Pictorial Geography of the World" (1856).

But what is the peculiarity? What is their Irishness?

Among these faces:

Map of Ireland: big chin, thin upper lip, nose of topographical complexity and hooded eyes whose lids seem to cross the pupils on a slow diagonal -- features almost too big for the face, heavy and quaint like a 1954 Buick Roadmaster.

Goddess Colleen: big-boned, redheaded, like Athena with freckles, skin as pale as Chinese takeout cartons, and a look of splendid uncaring about their architectural cheekbones.

AND OF COURSE, BLACKS ARE NOW WRITTEN OUT OF HISTORY - THUS WE GET THIS LYING NONSENSE.

Black Irish

Black Irish: The same skin without the freckles, and hair that is not dark but black, Spanish bullfighter black, telephone black, vestment black, a blackness said to come from survivors of the Spanish Armada, but come on, now. The Black Irish sometimes have quick eyes like the redhead goddesses, suggesting that they're thinking a little faster than you're talking.

Wait-and-See: Dark eyes and dark mouths, dark as bruises. They all slope down like chevrons. These faces give away precisely nothing. They make you worry they know something you don't. Georgia O'Keeffe had a little of that in her face -- a dark, hard thing.

Leprechaun: Wide, with no upper lip at all, but a long, full lower one, and slanting eyes.

 

Once you know the truth, the Albinos pathetic fearful lies are almost funny - until you remember how many were murdered, how many lives were brutalized, and how many lives were wasted because of lack of hope and opportunity.

 

 

 


 THE MAROONS

 

c
The National Library of Jamaica was established in 1979 under the Institute of Jamaica Act of 1978. It originated from the collection of the West India Reference Library (WIRL) which was founded in 1894 as a section of the Public Library of the Institute of Jamaica. This public library was the first of its kind in Jamaica. It began operations in 1879 when the Institute of Jamaica was established for the encouragement of literature, science and art. The West India Reference Library began as a small collection of Jamaican and West Indian books, under the guidance of Frank Cundall, the Secretary/Librarian of the Institute from 1891 until his death in 1937. It developed into a comprehensive collection, rich in primary source materials covering all aspects of Caribbean life and society. WIRL formed the nucleus of the National Library.



Origins of the Jamaican Maroons

The Jamaican Maroons are often described as enslaved Africans and persons of noticeable African descent who ran away or escaped from their masters or owners to acquire and preserve their freedom. The word maroon is commonly believed to be derived from the English equivalent of the Spanish word Cimarron (wild). The origins of the Maroons date back to 1655 around the time when Tainos and Africans who were freed by the Spanish took to remote parts of the island for refuge from the English invasion and to establish settlements. From the second half of the seventeenth century to the mid eighteenth century the Maroons developed into a formidable force that significantly challenged the system of enslavement imposed by the English. Though great controversy surrounds the terms of the treaties that they signed with the English, their role in undermining institutionalized slavery and cultural traditions are prominent parts of the history and heritage of Jamaica.



x




The Maroons and their fight for Freedom


The English took possession of the island from the Spanish in 1655, however, fighting between the two continued for a period of approximately five years. During this period, the Spanish had managed to secure the help of some of the Maroons (natives and Africans) in order to reclaim possession of the island, but their efforts to recapture it ultimately proved futile. Despite the resulting decline of the Maroon population, they posed a serious challenge to the English especially as the system of enslavement expanded and an increasing number of British owned enslaved Africans fled the plantations and joined existing Maroon communities.

The Maroons used various strategies to maintain their freedom and undermine the constant threat which the English posed. They would escape to mainly the Cockpit Country, that is, inaccessible and remote parts of the island where it was hilly and densely vegetated and established communities, which were frequently disrupted by the English. The Maroons have been divided into two groupings based on their location, windward and leeward. The Windward Maroons were those located in the East of the island, while the Leeward Maroons were those occupying the Western part of the island. The Leeward Maroons include locations such as Trelawny Town in St. James and Accompong in St. Elizabeth. Among the Windward settlements are Moore and Charles Town in Portland, Nanny Town in St. Thomas and Scotts Hall in St. Mary. Even with these groupings, the Maroons were organized into different bands. Such organization facilitated their mobilization.

In fighting for and maintaining their freedom, both the Leeward and Windward Maroons displayed highly skillful tactics, which proved to be most challenging for the English. Richard Price has given a vivid description of this: To the bewilderment of their European enemies, whose rigid and conventional tactics were learnt on the open battlefields of Europe, these highly adaptable and mobile warriors took maximum advantage of local environments, striking and withdrawing with great rapidity, making extensive uses of ambushes to catch their adversaries in crossfire, fighting only when and where they chose, depending on intelligence networks among non-maroons (both slaves and white settlers) (Senior 2003, p.308).



d





The Maroon Wars


The English and the Maroons were engaged in two wars throughout the period of struggle between them. Maroon oral history suggests that The First Maroon War as it is called began around 1655, spanning approximately 84 years, while records from the colonial archives suggest that its duration was about 10 years (Dunkley 2013, p.154). The War emanated from the fight between the English and the Spanish over control of the island, which lasted for 5 years. After the defeat of the Spanish by the English, the Maroons who had helped the Spanish continued to confront the English. The War took an irregular course, occurring intermittently, and both the English and the Maroons struggled to suppress each other. However, the Maroons, as many, if not most historians have concluded, were more successful in suppressing their opponent. They would raid the settlements of the English at rapid speed, after which they would quickly depart to inaccessible places, hilly and mountainous paths. They were more familiar with and knowledgeable about these conditions than the English were and this made chase very difficult and significantly contributed to their success in battle.
 
In 1734, the English managed to capture a major Maroon settlement, Nanny Town, which dealt a blow to the Windward Maroons. Nonetheless, this did not ensure their defeat or suppression. Carey Robinson has noted that, within a forty year period of the first struggle between the Maroons and the English, the Assembly was to pass 44 acts and spend 240,000 in its attempts at suppressionï. Also, Bryan Edwards, prominent planter/ historian of the time wrote that. . . . . they plundered all around them, and caused several plantations to be thrown up and abandoned, and prevented many valuable tracts of land from being cultivated, to the great prejudice and diminution of His Majesty revenue, as well as of the trade, navigation and consumption of British manufacturers: and to the manifest weakening, and preventing the further increase of the strength and inhabitants in the island (Robinson 1974, p.38). The Maroons were persistent in fighting and so were offered to sign a peace treaty by the English. It was the first Maroon treaty and was signed by the fierce Leeward Maroon leader, Cudjoe, on 1st March 1739.
 
This treaty that Cudjoe signed did not apply to the Maroon community in its entirety as the Windward Maroons were not involved in the process and were possibly unaware of such occurrence. They maintained their defense, however, not long thereafter (four months) they were also offered to sign a treaty by the English. The English had made five attempts at getting them to sign this treaty (Carey 1997, p.344) which was eventually signed by the Windward Maroon leader, Quao, on 23rd December 1739. As a result of a divide between the Windward Maroons, another treaty was signed a year later by Nanny, perhaps the most celebrated leader of the Moore Town Maroons.
Both the Leeward and Windward Maroon Treaties served to grant the Maroons freedom pacify them, and remove a major obstacle to the institution of slavery that the English created.

The Leeward Treaty, which contained fifteen (15) articles, was as follows:

I. That all hostilities shall cease on both sides forever.

II.That the said Captain Cudjoe, the rest of his Captains, Adherents and Men, shall be for ever hereafter in a perfect State of Freedom and Liberty, excepting thoe who have been taken by them, or fled to them within the two Years last past, if such are willing to return to their said Masters and Owners, with full Pardon and Indemnity from their Masters and Owners for what is past. Provided always, That if they are not willing to return, they shall remain in Subjection to Captain to Captain Cudjoe, and in Friendship with us, according to the Form and Tenor of this Treaty.
 
III.That they shall enjoy and possess for themselves and Posterity for ever, all the Lands situate and lying between Trelawney Town and the Cockpits, to the Amount of Fifteen hunded Acres, bearing North- west from the said Trelawney Town.
 IV. That they shall have Liberty to plant the said Lands with Coffee, Ginger, Tobacco and Cotton, and breed Cattle, Hogs, Goats, or any other stock, and dispose of the Produce or Increase of the said Commodities to the Inhabitants of this Island. Provided always, That when they bring the said Commodities to Market, they shall apply first to the Custos, or any other Majistrate of the respective Parishes where they expose their Goods to Sale, for Licence to vend the same.
V. That Captain Cudjoe, and all his Adherents, and people not in subjection to him, shall all live together within the Bounds of Trelawney Town; and that they have Liberty to hunt where they shall think fit, except within three Miles of any Settlement, Crawl or Pen. Provided always, That in casethe Hunters of Captain Cudjoe, and those of other Settlements meet, then the Hogs to be equally divided between both Parties.

VI. That said Captain Cudjoe and his Successors, do use their best Endeavours to take, kill, suppress or destry, either by themselves or jointly, with any other Number of Men commanded by that Service by his Excellency the Governor or Commander in Chief for the Time being, all Rebels wheresoever they be throughout this Island, unless they submit to the same Terms of Accomodation granted to Captain Cudjoe, and his Successors.

VII. That in case this island be invaded by any foreign Enemy, the said Captain Cudjoe, and his Successors herein and after named, or to be appointed, shall then, upon Notice given, immediately repair to any place the Governor for the Time being shall appoint, in order to repel the said Invaders with his or their utmost Force; and to submit to the Orders of the Commander in Chief on that Occasion.

VIII. That if any White Man shall do any Manner of Injury to Cptain Cudjoe, his Successors, or any of his People, they shall apply to any commanding Officer or Magistrate in the Neighbourhood for Justice; and in case Captain Cudjoe, or any of his People, shall do any Injury to any White Person, he shall submit himself or deliver up such Offenders to Justice.

VIIII. That if any Negroes shall hereafter run away from their Master or Owners, and fall into Captain Cudjoe Hands, they shall immediately be sent back to the Chief Majistrate of the next Parish where they are taken; and those that bring them are to be satisfied for their trouble, as Legislature shall appoint.
X. That all Negroes taken since the raising of this Party by Captain Cudjoe�s People, shall immediately be returned.

XI. That Captain Cudjoe, and his Successors, shall wait on his Excellency, or the Commander in Chief for the Time being, every Year, if thereunto required.
XII. That Cptain Cudjoe, during his Life, and the Captains succeeding him, shall have full Power to inflict any Punishment they think proper for Crimes committed by their Men among themselves (Death only excepted) in which Case, if the Captain thinks they deserve Death, he shall be obliged to bring them before any Justice of the Peace, who shall order Proceedings on their Trial equal to those of other free Negroes.

XIII. That Captain Cudjoe with his People shall cut, clear, and keep open, large, and convenient Roads from Trelawney Town to Westmoreland and St. James, and if possible to St. Elizabeth.

XIV. That two White Men to be nominated by his Excellency, or the Commander in Chief for the Time being, shall constantly live and reside with Captain Cudjoe and his Successors, in order to maintain a friendly Correspondence with the Inhabitants of this Island.
XV. That Captain Cudjoe shall, during his Life, be Commander in Trelawney Town, after his Decease the Command to devolve of his Brother Captain Accompong; and in case of his Decease, on his next Brother Captain Johnny; and, failing him, Captain Cuffee shall succeed, who is to be succeeded by Captain Quaco,and after all their Demises, the Governor or Commander in Chief for the Time being, shall appoint from Time to Time whom he thinks fit for that Command.


[Excerpted from The Maroons of Jamaica 1655-1796 (Mavis c. Campbell]

The Windward Treaty comprised fourteen (14) articles:
I. That all hostilities shall cease on both sides for ever, Amen.
II. That the said Captain Quao, and his people, shall have a certain quantity of land given to them, in order to raise provisions, hogs, fowls, goats, or whatever flock they may think proper, sugar canes excepted, saving for their hogs, and to have liberty to sell the same.
III. That four white men shall constantly live and reside with them in their town, in order to keep a good correspondence with the inhabitants of this island.
IV. That the said Captain Quao, and his people, shall be ready on all commands the governor, or the commander in chief for the time being, shall send him, to suppress and destroy all other party or parties of rebellious negroes, that now are or from time to time gather together to settle in any part of this island, and shall bring in such other negroes as shall from time to time run away from their respective owners, from the date of these articles.
V. That the said Captain Quao, and his people, shall also be ready to assist his Excellency the governor for the time being, in case of any invasion, and shall put himself, with all his people that are able to bear arms, under the command of the general or commander of such forces, appointed by his Excellency to defend the island from the said invasion.
VI. That the said Captain Quao, and all his people, shall be in subjection to his Excellency the governor for the time being; and the said Captain Quao shall, once every year or oftener, appear before the governor, if thereunto required.
VII. That in case any of the hunters belonging to the inhabitants of this island, and the hunters belonging to Captain Quao, should meet in order to hinder disputes, Captain Quao will order his people to let the inhabitants hunters have the hog.
VIII. That in case Captain Quao, or his people, shall take up run away negroes that shall abscond from their respective owners, and shall be paid for so doing as the legislature shall appoint.
IX. That in case Captain Quao, and his people, should be disturbed by a greater number of rebels than he is able to fight, that then he shall be assisted by as many white people as the governor for the time being shall think proper.
X. That in case any of the negroes belonging o Captain Quao shall be guilty of any crime or crimes that may deserve death, he shall deliver him up to the next magistrate, in order to be tried as other negroes are; but small crimes he may punish himself.
XI. That in case any white man, or other the inhabitants of this island, shall disturb or annoy any of the people, hogs, flock, or whatever goods may belong to the said Captain Quao, or any of his people, when they come down to the settlements to vend the same, upon due complaint made to a magistrate, he or they shall have justice done them.
XII. That neither Captain Quao, nor any of his people, shall bring any hogs, fowls, or any stock or provisions, to sell to the inhabitants, without a ticket from under the hand of one or more of the white men residing in their town.
XIII. That Captain Quao, nor any of his people, shall hunt within three miles of any settlement.
XIV. That in case Captain Quao should die, that then the command of his people shall descend to Captain Thomboy; and at his death to descend to Captain Apong; and at his death Captain Blackwall shall succeed; and at his death Clash shall succeed; and, when he dies, the governor or commander in chief for the time being shall appoint whom he thinks proper.

[Excerpted from Laws of Jamaica Volume I]

Subsequent to the ratification of both treaties, the Maroons had a relatively peaceful existence until July of 1795, when the Second Maroon War broke out. This arose from mounting grievances the Trelawny Town Maroons had with the British. But, what ignited the war was the flogging of two Maroons who were convicted of stealing pigs by a runaway slave they had returned to the authorities in adherence with one of the articles of the Treaties. These Maroons, it is believed, were angered by the conviction and flogging as they felt that they should have been the ones to try the accused and punish them. Besides, they felt undignified because the flogging was done by a runaway slave they had handed over to the authorities (Sherlock and Bennett 1998, p.145). The British authorities tried to quell the rebellion by meeting the Maroons, but this proved to be unsuccessful as they were dissatisfied with the demands of the British. As a consequence they continued the war.
Governor Lord Balcares ordered the Maroons to capitulate by 12 August, but, only a small number of the older Maroons did. The others persisted and brought about considerable damages and losses upon British property and troops (Sherlock and Bennett 1998, p.147), but eventually surrendered to the British on the 6th March 1796 for the reason they were significantly outnumbered by British troops, hunted by specially trained dogs from Cuba, and other Maroons. Moreover, it is said that they were inveigled into capitulation through proposal of another treaty by the Governor. The end of the War was officially declared on 16 March 1796, and on 6th June, over 500 Maroons were deported to Halifax Nova Scotia, Canada (Senior 2003, p.309).
 


These books are NOT recommended,
they are simply presented as examples of
what Albinos produce to make a dollar,
but not necessarily to educate you.
You will notice that the numbers
in the accounts do not match.
 

 
The Deportation of the Maroons of Trelawny Town
 to Nova Scotia, then Back to Africa

James D. Lockett

538 Trelawny Maroons were taken to Sierra Leone, where, 8 years earlier,
1,200 former slaves who sided with the British during the American Revolution War,
slaves mainly from Georgia and South Carolina, had been taken to Nova Scotia.
After 9 difficult years there, at their request, they were taken to Sierra Leone.


 Almost Home: Maroons between Slavery and
Freedom in Jamaica, Nova Scotia, and Sierra Leone
Ruma Chopra Published: 22 May 2018

Abstract

In spring 1796, after eight months of war in the mountainous terrain of Jamaica, most of the village of Trelawney Town—a community of about 550 runaway slaves and their descendants—surrendered. They had resisted black militia and British regulars but they were frightened by the savagery of the bloodhounds imported from Cuba to defeat them. They could not have imagined the outcome that followed. The Jamaican government, fearing that the Maroon War would trigger a second Haitian Revolution, deported the Maroon families to a remote location from whence they could never return home – Nova Scotia. After four years of enduring Halifax, the Maroons were sent to the West African colony in Sierra Leone. Remarkably, some returned home in the 1840s after the British Empire abolished slavery. The insurrection in Jamaica, the deportation it triggered, and the far-reaching impact of a small group of refugees together comprise one of the earliest instances of community displacement. Yet, remarkably, although the Maroons did not choose their initial place of exile, they actively determined the next one. The Maroon rebels of Jamaica transformed into protected refugees in Nova Scotia and empire builders in Africa. During an era of British abolitionism and global expansion, a small group of black insurrectionists maneuvered on a world stage. In each British zone, the Maroons brought to bear the full range of their cultural and military experience. Their remarkable adaptations form the crux of this book.



Jamaican Maroons in Nova Scotia: The politics of climate and race
Anya Zilberstein

Not long after Prime Minister Justin Trudeau handed winter coats to Syrian refugees arriving in Toronto this past December, reports about the immigrants’ problems began appearing in the press. Rent gouging by dishonest landlords. Frustration at delays in receiving permanent housing and full access to medical care. And, of course, that obligatory storyline: the shocking first experiences with a winter cold enough to cause some families to consider returning to the Middle East. This incident reminded me of a much earlier episode in Canadian history when a political leader welcomed people unwanted in other countries. In that case, the severity of northern winters became the focus of transatlantic controversy over whether or not black emigrants from the Caribbean could survive in the North.

In 1796, Nova Scotia’s Lieutenant Governor John Wentworth offered permanent residence to over 550 men, women, and children expelled from Jamaica. They came to Nova Scotia from the tropical highlands of Trelawny Town, where they formed the largest of Jamaica’s five independent enclaves of escaped slaves, or Maroons—privileged but vulnerable “islands of freedom in a sea of slavery” in historian Richard Sheridan’s vivid words. The previous year, Jamaica’s governor suspected the Trelawny Maroons of plotting an insurrection and decided to deport the entire community.

The problem was where to send them. During the era of Atlantic Revolutions and real or rumoured uprisings throughout the Caribbean, plantation colonies with large slave populations were unwilling to accept a large group of free blacks with a history of militancy. One possible destination was Upper Canada. Remote and landlocked, it would crush their “every idea of ever seeing Jamaica again.” While negotiations between colonial and metropolitan officials proceeded, the Trelawny Maroons were brought to Halifax. Intended as a temporary stopover, Wentworth greeted them enthusiastically and launched a campaign to keep them in the province.

He faced immediate opposition. Like many non-literate, marginalized communities, we know only indirectly about the Maroons’ experience. According to petitions written on their behalf, they wanted to return to Jamaica. But even if that were impossible, they wanted to leave “cold barron” Nova Scotia, “fit only for Bears and Moose.” Abolitionists in London declared that transferring them from the “hottest climate under the torrid zone to the coldest region in North America” was a violation of the natural order. Banished from the Caribbean, they should at least be transported to “a more temperate climate”. In the meantime, assemblymen in Halifax declared that free “Black Persons” would be a burden to the province and resisted the prospect of subsidizing their settlement.

Wentworth understood the situation differently. No abolitionist crusader, he was attempting to advance a much more prosaic goal, one that eluded British governors in Nova Scotia since the early eighteenth century: increasing the colony’s settler population and labour pool. Since the departure of many Loyalists who swelled the population after the American Revolution, the province had struggled to attract or retain permanent settlers. The Loyalist departures included over 1,000 Black Loyalists who left to colonize British Sierra Leone in 1792.

Now Wentworth was prepared to welcome nearly any sort of immigrant to bolster the settler population. He strongly objected to the idea of the northern climate’s allegedly harmful effects. He continually dismissed the Maroons’ complaints about local conditions as petty grievances, symptomatic of their general recalcitrance and tendency to “create little troubles to themselves.” He faulted the Maroons for their profligacy. They ate heavy food and didn’t exercise. They ran out of cordwood before winter’s end because they kept their houses “hotter than fever heat.” At the same time, they refused to wear shoes or stockings. Nevertheless, the governor believed they would eventually acclimate.

That the northern climate was temperate enough to be healthy for all people, he argued, was proven by the fact that the majority of Black Loyalists had remained in the province. Observers outside of Nova Scotia corroborated the point by noting that those “families of negroes” who stayed after 1792 were “enjoying, as farmers, comforts equal to those of their white neighbours.” This was a misleadingly rosy view of most people’s circumstances or autonomy. Besides slaves and indentured servants in the province, black freeholders continued to be among the poorest residents. Most relied on annual subsidies from the provincial government in exchange for men’s militia service as infantry labourers. But despite these hardships, Wentworth maintained that he had “never in any instance heard them complain about the Climate.”

Ultimately, Wentworth capitulated. Settling the Maroons in Nova Scotia had seemed like an opportunity to prove that, if they could live there comfortably, surely any other sort of migrant could too. But his rhetoric about the local climate proved ineffective in practice. In part this was because his scheme for permanently settling the Maroons in British North America deviated from increasingly strong beliefs about the fixed geographical relationships between climate and race, specifically the assumption that black people could not endure cold weather. It was a particularly shaky proposition in the 1790s, a moment of rising humanitarian activism by powerful Members of Parliament, among whom were the abolitionist founders of the Sierra Leone Company, with their competing interests in settling British West Africa.

In 1800, nearly the entire community of Trelawny Maroons departed for Sierra Leone, which Wentworth finally arranged “in conformity to their own repeated requests & solicitations, to avoid the cold winters of this Climate.” We can’t be certain whether or not they left the province mainly to escape the cold. But focusing their complaints on the climate turned out to be an effective means to express broader grievances against the colonial and British governments. Then (as now) invoking the weather could be a convenient way of sidestepping sharper debates about the politics of migration and resettlement.

Anya Zilberstein teaches in the Department of History at Concordia University in Montreal. You can read more about the colonial history of climate politics in her book A Temperate Empire: Making Climate Change in Early America, which will be published by Oxford University Press in September.



Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone
Wikipedia article
 
The Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone were a group of just under 600 Jamaican Maroons from Cudjoe's Town, the largest of the five Jamaican maroon towns who were deported by the British authorities in Jamaica following the Second Maroon War in 1796, first to Nova Scotia. Four years later in 1800, they were transported to Sierra Leone.

The Sierra Leone Company had established the settlement of Freetown and the Colony of Sierra Leone in 1792 for the resettlement of the African Americans who arrived via Nova Scotia after they had been evacuated as freedmen from the United States after the American Revolutionary War. Some Jamaican Maroons eventually returned to Jamaica, but most became part of the larger Sierra Leone Creole people and culture made up of freemen and liberated slaves who joined them in the first half-century of the colony. For a long period, they dominated the government and the economy of what developed into Sierra Leone.

History - Nova Scotia
In the Colony of Jamaica, during the course of the Second Maroon War of 1795-6, the Maroons of Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town) had the better of the skirmishes. They only laid down their arms and surrendered in December 1795 on condition they would not be deported. General George Walpole gave the Maroons his word that they would not be transported off the island. The Jamaican governor, Alexander Lindsay, 6th Earl of Balcarres, used the contrived breach of treaty as a pretext to deport most of the Trelawny Town Maroons to Nova Scotia. Walpole was disgusted with the governor's actions, pointing out that he had given the Maroons his word that they would not be transported off the island. Walpole resigned his commission, and went back to England, where he became an MP and protested in the House of Commons how Balcarres had behaved in a duplicitous and dishonest way with the Maroons.

In 1796, just under 600 Jamaican Maroons from Trelawny Town were deported to Nova Scotia, where loyal colonial slaves who had sought refuge behind English lines had also been sent earlier in the decade. Immediate actions were put in place for the removal of the Trelawny Maroons to Lower Canada (Quebec); Upper Canada (Ontario) had also been suggested as a suitable place. The British decided to send this group to Halifax, Nova Scotia, until further instructions were received from England. William Quarrell and Alexander Ochterlony were sent from Jamaica with the maroons as commissioners. During the course of his administration, Ochterlony took half a dozen maroon women as mistresses. Quarrell tried in vain to break up the maroons as a community.



c
The province of Nova Scotia is famous for its high tides, lobster, fish, blueberries, and apples. It is also known for an unusually high rate of shipwrecks on Sable Island. The name Nova Scotia originates from Latin, meaning "New Scotland."



On 26 June 1796, the ships Dover, Mary, and Anne sailed from Port Royal, to Halifax. One arrived in Halifax on 21 July, the other two followed two days later, carrying, according to one historian, a total of 568 men, women, and children. According to another historian, about 581 Maroons from Trelawny Town left Jamaica, and 17 died on the voyage. Prince Edward, the Commander-in-Chief, North America, impressed with the proud bearing and other characteristics of the maroons, employed the group to work on the new fortifications at the Citadel Hill in Halifax. Lieutenant-Governor Sir John Wentworth believed that the maroons would be good settlers. He received orders from the Duke of Portland to settle them in Nova Scotia.

Following this the two commissioners responsible with credit of 25,000 Jamaican pounds from the government of Jamaica, expended £3,000 on 5,000 acres (20 km2) of land and built the community of Preston, Nova Scotia. Governor Wentworth was granted an allowance of £240 annually from England to provide religious instruction and schooling for the community. After the first winter, the maroons, raised in an independent culture and warmer climate, and not impressed with what they considered the servile aspects of subsistence agriculture, became less tolerant of the conditions in which they were living. The colonel of the Trelawny Town Maroons, Montague James, wrote a number of petitions to England and Jamaica asking for them to be removed from Nova Scotia. The maroon colonel sent one of his junior officers, Charles Samuels (maroon), to London to present information to Whig MP George Walpole about the terrible conditions they had to endure in Nova Scotia.

Arrival in Sierra Leone
The Sierra Leone Company decided to send the maroons to its new colony of Freetown in present-day Sierra Leone (West Africa), which had been established for the Nova Scotian Settlers. The Maroon survivors from Nova Scotia were transported to Freetown in 1800, in the early years of the colony. The final leg of their journey was aboard HMS Asia. She arrived at Halifax on 31 May 1800, presumably still under her captain from 1796, Robert Murray, to pick up the maroons, sailed again with them on 8 August, and arrived in Sierra Leone on 30 September that year. The maroons helped the British to put down a rebellion by the Black Nova Scotians, after which they received the best land and houses.
In the first two months at Sierra Leone, 22 maroons died, mainly from disease, and over 150 took ill.



b



Maroons in Sierra Leone
At Trelawny Town, and throughout their exile to first Nova Scotia and then Sierra Leone, Montague James continued to command the Trelawny Maroons. In 1809, Sierra Leone Governor Thomas Perronet Thompson officially nominated Montague James as the head of the maroons in Sierra Leone. Montague James died three years later. Once they became settled, and they started to flourish, their numbers grew to the point that they numbered in the mid-600s in 1826. They gained good jobs in the civil service and the military. However, the situation soured for the Maroons in the 1830s, when they objected to the use of corporal punishment in the military, and a new governor dismissed many Maroons from civil service jobs and gave them to Nova Scotians and Liberated Africans. Many Maroons were traders, but they could not compete with the Liberated Africans who came to the colony in large numbers, and took over the internal trade. European visitors observed that the Maroons were disliked by the other ethnic groups in the colony.

With the passing years, more Maroons requested a return to Jamaica. After the Second Maroon War, the Jamaican Assembly had passed a law making it a felony punishable by death for any Trelawny Maroon to return to Jamaica. Two petitions sent by the Maroons in Sierra Leone to the British Crown requesting the right to return were rejected. However, in 1831, another petition was presented by 224 Sierra Leone Maroons to the British government, and this time the Jamaican authorities relented. They responded by saying they would place no obstacle in the way of Maroons returning to Jamaica, but would not pay any passage or the purchase of lands in the island.

The final tipping point occurred in 1839, when a Liberated African apprentice, an Ibo named Martin, murdered his elderly Maroon employer, John Jarrett. A group of Maroons caught Martin, and they tortured him, and then burnt him to death to avenge Major Jarrett. The Ibo in the colony demanded vengeance, and attacked Maroons in Freetown, forcing a number of them to flee for safety in the interior. After this incident, large numbers of Maroons no longer felt safe in Sierra Leone.

Maroons Returning to Jamaica
In 1839, the first Maroons made their way from Sierra Leone to Jamaica. Mary Brown and her family, which included her daughter Sarah McGale and a Spanish son-in-law, sold off their property in Sierra Leone, bought a schooner, and set sail for Jamaica. They were joined by two other Sierra Leone Maroons, Mary Ricketts and her daughter Jane Bryan. In 1841, this group found their way to Trelawny Town, now called Maroon Town, but which they still insisted on calling Cudjoe's Town. In 1841, some of the maroons returned to Jamaica to work for Jamaican sugar planters, who desperately needed workers following the abolition of slavery. Many freedmen in Jamaica wanted to cultivate their own plots rather than work on plantations, leaving a vacuum for workers, and the Jamaican planters initially turned to Sierra Leone.

In 1841, the first ship to arrive in Sierra Leone looking for African workers was the Hector, and several Maroons were so desperate to leave Sierra Leone that they did not wait for the ship to dock, but rowed out to meet it in their canoes. In all, 64 Maroons left Sierra Leone for Jamaica on the Hector alone. Most Sierra Leone Maroons lived in Freetown, and between 1837 and 1844, Freetown's Maroon population shrank from 650 to 454, suggesting that about 200 made their way back to Jamaica. As many as one-third of the Maroons in Sierra Leone returned to Jamaica in the 1840s.

Maroons remaining in Sierra Leone
The Jamaican Maroons who remained in Sierra Leone gradually merged with the developing Sierra Leone Creole people. This was made up of immigrants and the descendants of various groups of freed slaves who arrived in Freetown between 1792 and about 1855. After abolishing the Atlantic slave trade, the British Navy posted ships off Africa to intercept slavers, and would deposit liberated slaves at Freetown. Some modern Creoles (or "Krio") still proudly claim descent from the maroons. The Creole congregation of Freetown's St. John's Maroon Church, which was built by the maroons in 1822 on what is now the city's main street, have especially emphasized their descent from the Jamaican exiles. The maroons brought their ceremonial music and dances to Sierra Leone. The ceremonial music gradually became a popular Creole music genre and became known as Gumbe music and dance (named after the drum). It has survived into the 21st century and influences popular music. It has become identified with the broader Creole population.



The Maroons and Jamaican Heritage


Arguably, the most outstanding feature and personage of Maroon existence that is a part of the heritage of Jamaica is the settlements they established during the period of enslavement, and Nannyï one of the leaders of the Windward Maroons. Maroon settlements that have survived include: Accompong in St. Elizabeth, Moore and Charles Town in Portland, and Scotts Hall in St. Mary. These communities still, to a great extent, maintain the culture of their forbearers, despite some amount of assimilation into the wider Jamaican society. The communities have their own leaders who are referred to as colonels historically. Their traditions are predominantly African based, especially from the Akan region. It is common view that most of the original Maroons were Coromantees, natives of the Akan region. Among these traditions are: the Ambush Dance, Myalism, and an African based Pidgin language (Senior 2003, 309). Other elements of their traditions include jerk pork, and the use of rum and pigs for rituals.

Cudjoe, Quao, Accompong and Kofi among other Maroon leaders are often mentioned in discussions of Maroon history, and celebratory activities. However, only the female Maroon leader, Nanny has acquired a superior position in the heritage of Jamaica. Nanny is known for her elusive presence, fierceness in battle, and Obeah skills that have attracted much attention. Nannyï existence has often been questioned because of her elusiveness and incredible Obeah works she performed has also attracted debate. Nonetheless, there are accounts which speak to this. In Memoirs and Anecdotes of Phillip Thickness Late Lieutenant Governor, for instance, reference is made to Nanny as, The Old Hagg. . . had a girdle around her waist with (I speak within compass) nine or ten different knives hanging in sheaths to it, many of which I have no doubt, had been plunged in human flesh and bloodï (Gottlieb, 2000, 25). Today, Nanny is the only Maroon leader who has ascended to the rank of National Hero, the most significant recognition given by the country, and one that has earned her a spot on the Jamaican five hundred dollars ($500) note.

References
Campbell, Mavis C. The Maroons of Jamaica 1655- 1796: A History of Resistance, Collaboration and Betrayal. Massachusetts: Bergin and Garvey Publishers, 1988.
Carey, Bev. The Maroon Story. St. Andrew: Agouti Press, 1997.
Dunkley, D. A. Agency of the Enslaved: Jamaica and the Culture of Freedom in the Atlantic World. Maryland: Lexington Publishers, 2013.
Gotlieb, Karla. A history of Queen Nanny: Leader of the Windward Maroons. New Jersey: Africa World Press, 2000.
Robinson, Carey. The Fighting Maroons, Jamaica. William Collins and Sangster, 1974.
Senior, Olive. Encyclopedia of Jamaican Heritage. St. Andrew: Twin Guinep Publisher, 2003.
Sherlock, Phillip & Bennett Hazel. The Story the Jamaican People. Kingston & Princeton: Ian Randle Publishers & Markus Weiner Publishers, 1998.
The Laws of Jamaica Volume I. Alexander Aikman, 1792.



 



The Jacobites

Jacobitism was a political movement in Great Britain and Ireland that aimed to restore the Roman Catholic Stuart King James VII of Scotland, who was also James II of England and Ireland, and his heirs to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland. The movement took its name from Jacobus, the Renaissance Latin form of Iacomus, the original Latin form of James. Adherents rebelled against the British government on several occasions between 1688 and 1746.

After James II was deposed in 1688 and replaced by his daughter Mary II, ruling jointly with her husband and first cousin (James's nephew) William III, the Stuarts lived in exile, occasionally attempting to regain the throne. The strongholds of Jacobitism were parts of the Scottish Highlands and the lowland north-east of Scotland, Ireland, and parts of Northern England (mostly within the counties of Northumberland and Lancashire). Significant support also existed in Wales and South-West England.

The Jacobites believed that parliamentary interference with the line of succession to the English and Scottish thrones was illegal. Catholics also hoped the Stuarts would end recusancy. In Scotland, the Jacobite cause became intertwined with the clan system. The emblem of the Jacobites is the White Cockade. White Rose Day is celebrated on 10 June, the anniversary of the birth of the Old Pretender in 1688. (A cockade is a knot of ribbons, or other circular- or oval-shaped symbol of distinctive colors which is usually worn on a hat).

 

 

JACOBITE GLEANINGS
FROM STATE MANUSCRIPTS


Short Sketches of Jacobites
The Transportations in 1745

BY J. MACBETH FORBES

 

Click here for link to the free on-line book

 

There is also a page of pertinent pages from the book in the specific subject page area - click link at the Top above.

 

 

Below are excerpted pages from the book which tend to

illuminate the racist lies created by the Albinos


i.e. No Black Britain's, No Black royals, No Black Europeans, Blacks in the Americas are Africans etc.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

As we know, Red Hair is a known indicator of Albinism (whether full or partial). Note this Wiki on Red Hair: Today, red hair is most commonly found at the northern and western fringes of Europe; it is associated particularly with people in the British Isles (although Victorian era ethnographers consider the Udmurt people of the Volga to be "the most red-headed men in the world"). Redheads are common among Celtic and Germanic peoples.

In Scotland, 10% of the population have red hair and approximately 35% carry the recessive redhead gene. In Ireland, as many as 10% of the population have red, auburn, or strawberry blond hair. It is thought that up to 46% of the Irish population carry the recessive redhead gene. A 1956 study of hair color amongst British army recruits found high levels of red hair in Wales and the English Border counties.

 

Does anyone seriously believe that these people could have worked

the "Cane Fields" of Barbados and Jamaica, among others?

 

 

 

 

 

More about the sale of Africana.com

The New York Times - Business Day

Co-Founders of Africana.com Sell Venture to Time Warner

By DAVID D. KIRKPATRICK
Published: September 7, 2000

Facing an uncertain climate for Internet start-ups, the founders of Africana.com Inc., the Harvard University professors Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Kwame Anthony Appiah, have sold their venture to Time Warner Inc.

Professor Gates said the deal would help keep the Web site alive. ''The revenue model was slow to develop, let's put it that way,'' he said. ''I would have become worried about its future by next year unless there was some dramatic turnaround.'' Terms of the deal were not announced.

Africana.com is one of many Web sites seeking a worldwide audience of African descent but takes a uniquely pedagogical approach. It concentrates on educational content, from cultural history lessons to advice on dental hygiene and investing, sometimes offering advice on generic subjects like health or finance from experts who are African-American. Other features, like links to music from radio stations around the world, address the ''African diaspora.'' Professor Gates and Professor Appiah started the site to promote an encyclopedia that they edited, Africana.

Professor Gates said Africana. com still records far less traffic than others in its market, like NetNoir. com, which focuses on celebrities, or BlackVoices.com, which features chat rooms. Africana.com is for-profit but does not sell banner advertisements, seeking sponsorships instead. ''We didn't want a lot of cheap ads that would dilute the brand,'' Professor Gates said.

Edward Adler, a spokesman for Time Warner, said the company hoped to use the portal to exploit its extensive library of film, television and music of interest to African-Americans. The company also envisions cooperation between Africana. com's management and its traditional media units like Time magazine and CNN, he said. When Time Warner's proposed merger with America Online Inc. is completed, Mr. Adler said, the company may include Africana.com with a version of AOL distributed free to schools.

Professor Gates said that he and Professor Appiah would continue to work on the site as ''consultants and idea people.'' The site has about 20 employees, who will continue operating it, he said.

Other partners have included the music entrepreneur Quincy Jones, the former Time Warner executive Martin Payson and Harry M. Lasker III, a computer consultant.

Henry Louis Gates Jr., co-founder of Africana.com, said it was sold to ensure its survival. ''I would have become worried about its future by next year unless there was some dramatic turnaround,'' he said. (Associated Press)

 

 

 

 

 

More on Maroons

 

General description from many books:

Maroons were runaway slaves in the West Indies, Central America, South America, and North America, who formed independent settlements together. The same designation has also become a derivation for the verb marooning. Maroon communities emerged in many places in the Caribbean (St Vincent and Dominica for example), but none were seen as such a great threat to the British as the Jamaican Maroons. A British governor signed a treaty promising the Maroons 2500 acres (10 km²) in two locations, because they presented a threat to the British. Also, some Maroons kept their freedom by agreeing to capture runaway slaves. They were paid two dollars for each slave returned. Beginning in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Jamaican Maroons fought British colonists to a draw and eventually signed treaties in the 18th century that effectively freed them over 50 years before the abolition of the slave trade in 1807. To this day, the Jamaican Maroons are to a significant extent autonomous and separate from Jamaican society.

 

This is more from the Jamaican government site.

The Slave Trade

The English settlers concerned themselves with growing crops that could easily be sold in England. Tobacco, indigo and cocoa soon gave way to sugar which became the main crop for the island.
The sugar industry grew so rapidly that the 57 sugar estates in the island in 1673 grew to nearly 430 by 1739.

Enslaved Africans filled the large labour force required for the industry. The colonists were impressed with the performance and endurance of the Africans, as well as the fact that African labour was cheaper and more promising. They continued to ship Africans to the West Indies to be sold to planters who forced them to work on sugar plantations.

The slave trade became a popular and profitable venture for the colonists. In fact the transportation of slaves became such a regular affair that the journey from Africa to the West Indies became known as the ‘Middle Passage’. The voyage was so named because the journey of a British slaver was 3-sided, starting from England with trade goods, to Africa where these were exchanged for slaves. Afterwards, the journey continued to the West Indies where the slaves were landed and sugar, rum and molasses taken aboard for the final leg of the journey back to England.

The slaves, however, were unhappy with their status, so they rebelled whenever they could. Many of them were successful in running away from the plantations and joining the Maroons in the almost inaccessible mountains.

Several slave rebellions stand out in Jamaica’s history for example, the Easter Rebellion of 1760 led by Tacky; and the Christmas Rebellion of 1831 which began on the Kensington Estate in St. James, led by Sam Sharpe. He has since been named a National Hero.

The Maroons also had several wars against the English. In 1739 and 1740 after two major Maroon Wars, treaties were signed with the British. In the treaty of 1740, they were given land and rights as free men. In return they were to stop fighting and help to recapture run-away slaves. This treaty resulted in a rift among the Maroons as they did not all agree that they should return run-away slaves to the plantations.

The frequent slave rebellions in the Caribbean was one factor that led to the abolition of the slave trade and slavery. Other factors included the work of humanitarians who were concerned about the slaves’ well-being. Humanitarian groups such as the Quakers publicly protested against slavery and the slave trade. They formed an anti slavery committee which was joined by supporters such as Granville Sharp, James Ramsay, Thomas Clarkson and later on, William Wilberforce.

On January 1, 1808 the Abolition Bill was passed. Trading in African slaves was declared to be “utterly abolished, prohibited and declared to be unlawful”. Emancipation and apprenticeship came into effect in 1834 and full freedom was granted in 1838.

The immediate post slavery days were very difficult for the poorer classes. Though most of the English planters had left the islands and new owners were running the plantations, the old oligarchic system still remained. The will of the masses was not deemed important and hence ignored. To add fuel to the already burning flame, the American Civil War resulted in supplies being cut off from the island. A severe drought was also in progress and most crops were ruined.

In October 1865, an uprising in St. Thomas, called the Morant Bay Rebellion, was led by Paul Bogle. Bogle and his men stormed the Morant Bay Courthouse while it was in session. A number of white people was killed including the custos of the parish. The rebellion was put down by the Governor, Edward John Eyre. More than 430 people were executed or shot, hundreds more flogged and 1,000 dwellings destroyed.

Paul Bogle and George William Gordon, now National Heroes, were hanged. George Gordon was a prominent coloured legislator who was sympathetic to the problems of the poor people and was blamed for the trouble caused by the masses.

Eyre was subsequently recalled to England but not before exchanging the ancient Constitution for the Crown Colony system. The succeeding years saw the island’s recovery and development – social, constitutional and economic, and its evolution into a sovereign state.

 

 

This is more from the Africana site.

English Conquest

On May 10, 1655, an English expedition, commanded by Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables, landed at the present-day coastal town of Passage Fort, in the southeastern parish of Saint Catherine. This expedition, which had failed to capture Hispaniola, proceeded to claim the island of Jamaica for England. At the time of the English conquest, the Spaniards were unable to effectively resist the invasion because only about 500 of them were armed with weapons. The English ordered the Spanish colonists to deliver all of their slaves and goods and leave the island. Some followed these orders, but a group led by Don Cristabal Arnaldo de Isasi remained and put up guerrilla resistance to the English. Isasi freed the slaves, many of whom retreated with the Spanish rebels into the hills. From there, the Spanish and the freed blacks who had joined them frequently raided and waged guerrilla warfare on English settlements. Isasi, finally overwhelmed by English forces, fled to Cuba for reinforcement. Some of the blacks who had fought with Isasi, recognizing that the Spanish case was lost, defected to the English. A black regiment fighting for the English, led by the former slave Juan de Bolas, proved a decisive factor in the final defeat of the Spanish, marked by Isasi's retreat in 1660.

Jamaica's English-appointed governor Edward D'Oyley compensated the black regiment by officially recognizing their freedom and granting them landholdings. Other formerly Spanish-owned slaves remained autonomous of the colonial administration, living in their own communities as maroons. Spain officially ceded the island to England under the Treaty of Madrid in 1670. The English established a representative system of government, giving white settlers the power to make their own laws through an elected House of Assembly, which acted as a legislative body. The Legislative Council, whose members were appointed by the governor, served an advisory function and took part in legislative debates. This system lasted until it was replaced in 1866 by the crown colony system of government, which stripped the island elite of most of its political power.

THE SLAVE TRADE AND PLANTATION ECONOMY

The English encouraged permanent settlement through generous land grants. In 1664 Sir Thomas Modyford, a sugar plantation and slave owner in Barbados (a Caribbean island of the Lesser Antilles chain), was appointed governor of Jamaica. He brought 1,000 English settlers and black slaves with him from Barbados. Modyford immediately encouraged plantation agriculture, especially the cultivation of cacao and sugarcane. By the early 1700s sugar estates worked by black slaves were established throughout the island, and sugar and its by-products dominated the economy. Other economic activities, including livestock rearing and the cultivation of coffee and pimento (allspice), developed as well.

With the establishment of the plantation system, the slave trade grew. Slaves of both genders and every age were found in all facets of the island's economy, in both rural and urban areas. They were laborers on plantations, domestic servants, and skilled artisans (tradesmen, technicians, and itinerant traders). The wealth created in Jamaica by the labor of black slaves has been estimated at £18,000,000, more than half of the estimated total of £30,000,000 for the entire British West Indies. It has been postulated that the profit generated by the 'triangular trade' (involving sugar and tropical produce from the British Caribbean colonies, the trade in manufactured goods for slaves in Africa, and the trade of slaves in the British Caribbean) financed the Industrial Revolution in Britain.

More than 1 million slaves are estimated to have been transported directly from Africa to Jamaica during the period of slavery; of these, 200,000 were reexported to other places in the Americas. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Akan, Ga, and Adangbe from the northwestern coastal region known as the Gold Coast (around modern Ghana) dominated the slave trade to the island. Not until 1776 did slaves imported from other parts of Africa-Igbos from the Bight of Biafra (southern modern Nigeria) and Kongos from Central Africa-outnumber slaves from the Gold Coast. But slaves from these regions represented 46 percent of the total number of slaves. The demand for slaves required about 10,000 to be imported annually. Thus slaves born in Africa far outnumbered those who were born in Jamaica; on average they constituted more than 80 percent of the slave population until Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807. When Britain abolished the institution of slavery in 1834, Jamaica had a population of more than 311,000 slaves and only about 16,700 whites.

By the mid-1700s planters were distributing small plots of marginal land to their slaves, both men and women, as a way to offset the cost of providing food. However, the slaves were expected to tend their own crops only during their limited free time. Although slaves were not allotted much time to work the plots, they were able to produce enough not only for their own subsistence but also for sale. A vibrant marketing network developed among the slaves throughout the island, creating what is referred to as a proto-peasantry.

In the British mind, slaves were no more than property and merchandise to be bought and sold. On this premise, the British enacted a whole system of slave laws aimed primarily at policing slaves. In general, the premise that slaves were no more than property allowed slave owners to treat them brutally. The severity of this brutality varied. Slaves on large sugar estates generally suffered the harshest punishments, while those on smaller estates and in towns received somewhat better treatment.

FREE COLOURED COMMUNITY

White men on the island often had relations with black women (slaves or free), giving rise to a coloured population. ('Coloured' is a term in the former British colonies for people of mixed European and African descent.) Children of free women were born free, but those of slave women were born enslaved. Some coloureds who were born as slaves were freed through manumission (the formal release of a slave) by their fathers. Masters at times also manumitted black slaves for various reasons, such as in reward for a lifetime of servitude. Free coloureds formed a middle group on the social ladder, between blacks and whites. They disassociated themselves from the slaves but were not accepted by the whites. The number of free people of color (including free blacks and free coloureds) increased significantly between 1722 and 1830, from 800 individuals to 44,000. Free coloureds were principally urban dwellers, participating in several phases of economic life. They were artisans, merchants, mechanics, and professionals-lawyers, schoolteachers, and journalists. A few inherited plantations from their fathers. Free coloured women excelled as traders, shopkeepers, innkeepers, and housekeepers. Many free coloureds were well educated, as education was valued as the vehicle for upward social mobility and 'acceptance' by whites. Many coloureds attended universities in Britain, and their children outnumbered whites at the Wolmers Free School in Kingston, which was established for the white population in the 1700s. In 1837 there were 430 children of free coloureds attending this school, out of a student body of 500.

Despite their numbers and the education and wealth some obtained, free coloureds had no civil rights. Therefore they were caught up in a continuous struggle for equal rights. They protested primarily through petitions and memorials rather than open violent conflicts. In 1813 a petition, signed by more than 2,400 free coloureds, demanding rights to give evidence in court was delivered to the House of Assembly, which acceded. In 1816 free coloureds petitioned for full political and civil rights on the grounds that they were taxpayers but were not represented. They threatened to cease paying taxes until they were granted these rights. Under pressure from free coloureds, the local authorities gradually removed legal restrictions, culminating on December 21, 1830, with the Act for the Removal of All Disabilities of Persons of Free Condition.

MAROON COMMUNITIES

Since their arrival on the island, blacks had resisted their enslavement. They engaged in what is referred to as atomized forms of resistance, such as foot dragging (work slowdowns, or 'go-slows'), destruction of property, theft, absenteeism from work, and the covert murder of whites. But resistance also took the forms of large-scale rebellions and establishment of maroon communities.

Maroonage, or the establishment of communities by runaway slaves, began with the slaves imported by Spain and continued throughout the period of slavery in Jamaica. The maroon communities waged relentless warfare against British colonialism. Beginning in the 18th century, two distinct groups of maroon communities emerged: the so-called Leeward Maroons in the south central, or leeward, part of the island and the so-called Windward Maroons in the north and northeast. The Leeward Maroons had an elected chief, and the villagers were divided into politico-military units. Their system was stratified based on ability, especially military ability, and a careful division of labor. Some were proficient in attacking plantations to steal provisions and free slaves, especially female slaves because men outnumbered women in the maroon communities. Others were hunters, hunting wild hogs; others made salt, necessary for meat preservation; and others cleared the ground for the women to plant crops, such as plantains, sweet corn, bananas, cacao, pineapples, cassava, and sugarcane.

The Windward Maroons did not have a central leader as did the Leeward. They developed a somewhat loose federation of communities or quasi-autonomous villages under different leadership, having a politico-military structure that made for democratic inter- and intra-group relationships. Nanny Town (named after its legendary leader, Nanny; now known as Mooretown), which was situated deep in the Blue Mountains, was reputed to have the greatest warriors among the Windward Maroons, numbering 300 in their ranks. Both the Leeward chief, Cudjoe, and Nanny were notorious for their continued and relentless attack on British colonization and slavery. Nanny fought uncompromisingly against slavery. In addition to being a feared warrior, she was said to be an obeah woman, possessing supernatural powers that she allegedly used in repelling and defeating British attacks.

For reasons of security, maroon villages were located in the relatively inaccessible mountains, giving them a commanding view of the lowlands. Guards were posted at the entrance to watch and alert communities at the approach of the British by blowing the abeng, the conch shell or cow horn, as was the practice in parts of West Africa.

The boldness of the maroons, their prowess in guerrilla warfare, and their knowledge of the terrain made them a serious threat to English colonization, the plantation economy, and slavery itself. They plundered and burned plantations, captured slaves, took arms and ammunition, and killed English soldiers who ventured into the interior. Their continued successes against English forces inspired slaves, many of whom escaped the plantations to join maroon communities or to establish new ones. The maroons were such a formidable force that the English were unable to subjugate them after 85 years of intense, bitter struggle. The English conceded defeat in 1739, ending the First Maroon War. In the peace treaties, the maroons won their independence and freedom. They were granted semiautonomous government status and land in return for halting all hostilities against whites, obligating themselves to assist in case of foreign invasion, destroying any new maroon communities, and capturing and returning future runaways. Thus, on the fringes of the slave-plantation economy established by Europeans, semiautonomous communities of free blacks developed, with their own economy and culture partially based on African traditions.

An uneasy peace prevailed until July 1795, when 580 maroons from the maroon community of Trelawny Town revolted against indignities and injustice meted out to them by the authorities. It took considerable force to suppress the revolt, known as the Second Maroon War. The British forces consisted of 1,500 soldiers supported by several thousand militiamen and 100 fierce bloodhounds imported from Cuba in December of that year. In June 1796 the government deported 568 maroons (including men, women, and children) from Trelawny Town and confiscated their land. They sent the maroons first to Nova Scotia, in what later became Canada, and subsequently to Sierra Leone. This deportation effectively deterred further maroon hostilities. Fearing deportation, they collaborated fully with the authorities, especially in suppressing slave revolts. The action of the maroons in suppressing the Morant Bay Rebellion in 1865 testifies to their full cooperation with the government. The treaties successfully reduced maroonage and the formation of new maroon communities, but some of the maroon communities that were already established have survived to this day. The surviving maroon communities are Nanny Town; Scott's Hall in the present-day northern parish of Saint Mary; and Accompong (named for Cudjoe's brother, who had distinguished himself as a military leader with the Windward Maroons) in the southwestern parish of Saint Elizabeth. However, the retention of African cultural and political practices within these communities varies.

SLAVE REVOLTS

Ethnicity was prominent in the organization and execution of slave revolts in Jamaica, especially those during the 17th and 18th centuries. Akan slaves were involved in most revolts. In 1673 about 300 Akan slaves revolted in the north central parish of Saint Ann. In 1690 another Akan rebellion involving 400 slaves broke out on Suttons Estate in the south central parish of Clarendon. After setting the plantation on fire the rebels fled to the hilly interior, from where they conducted continuous raids on nearby plantations. In 1745 Akan slaves revolted in the southeastern parish of Saint Thomas.

In 1760 a slave by the name of Tacky, an Akan who had been a chief in Africa, led the most widespread slave revolt in Jamaica's history. Beginning in the northeastern parish of Saint Mary, it soon spread to a number of parishes, including Westmoreland, Saint James, and Clarendon, and to the capital of Kingston. The rebels, inspired by the victory of the maroons in winning their liberty, fought in the same manner in an effort to win their freedom. It took the authorities six months to suppress Tacky's revolt, and by then the rebels had killed 60 whites. Tacky was shot dead by a maroon, and the authorities executed nearly 400 slaves. Other revolts broke out in 1761, 1765, and 1766, but they were quickly crushed by the authorities with the aid of maroons.

The most violent slave revolt of the 19th century was the Baptist War, also known as the Christmas Rebellion, in 1831. Led by Samuel Sharpe, a Baptist deacon and domestic slave, the revolt began in Saint James and soon engulfed much of western Jamaica. In its suppression, more than 430 blacks, including Sharpe, were executed. All who were thought to have been associated with the revolt, including white missionaries, were either imprisoned or killed. This revolt was a decisive factor in the British move toward emancipation, in addition to intensified antislavery agitation by the Quakers (Society of Friends) in Britain, led by Thomas Buxton, Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce, and Stephen Lushington.

APPRENTICESHIP AND EMANCIPATION

Full emancipation was a gradual process in the British colonies. The first step occurred with an 1833 legislative act of the British Parliament that proposed a program known as apprenticeship. The act became effective in all the British colonies on August 1, 1834. All slaves' children under the age of six or born after this date were freed, while all others were required to undergo a transitional period as 'apprentices' before full emancipation. The act sought to soften the effects of abolition on slave owners by giving them monetary compensation of £6,161,927 for their loss of property in slaves. The slaves received no compensation.

 

 

Material on Maroon activities:

 

Thomas Peters

In November of 1776, Thomas Peters joined an all black regiment called the Black Pioneers. Prior to joining the regiment, he was a fugitive slave who left Wilmington, North Carolina. While serving with the Black Pioneers, Peters became well known and progressed to the rank of sergeant. But when the British and their Loyalist allies began to make plans to evacuate in 1782, the Black Americans were the last to be provided for. The Black Pioneers along with about 5,000 others were transported from New York to Nova Scotia. The other refugees scattered across the Atlantic world, profoundly affecting the development of Nova Scotia, the Bahamas, and the African nation of Sierra Leone.

When Peters arrived in Nova Scotia, he became a resident of Brindley a town near Digby. He received rations from the government for a time, but decided to leave Annapolis County for Saint John because he could not secure farmland near his town lot. He relocated to Saint John; unfortunately, the settlement situation was much the same there. Blacks had received only one acre each, many blacks in both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick had a lot of trouble being granted farms. Thomas Peters became their representative and drafted many petitions for them. When they were rejected he decided to travel to England to represent them to the Crown.

In 1790, Thomas Powers carried a petition of protest to London from the Nova Scotia black Loyalists. The British government responded by offering free passage to Sierra Leone to blacks who wanted to leave Canada. Peters' story attracted the attention of the Sierra Leone Company through Granville Sharp a famed abolitionist and philanthropist. The company was working to establish a settlement in Sierra Leone, but badly needed new settlers to rebuild the destroyed settlement. The company offered Peters and his followers a new promised land in the 'Province of Freedom'.

Peters was excited to have a new, more promising settlement opportunity. He reported the news to the blacks he represented and was appointed as an intermediary between the Sierra Leone Company and his people. Peters was influential in many people's decision to go to Sierra Leone and worked closely with John Clarkson the Superintendent, to prepare for the voyage. With few options other than working as servants or tenant farmers, some 1,200 decided to make the journey in 1792. Entire church congregations emigrated, providing a strong institutional basis for the struggling African settlement. In Sierra Leone, Nova Scotians became known as the "Krio".

After Peters arrived in Sierra Leone he found that there were still many problems. The blacks had not received their land grants as soon as expected. In addition, Clarkson was not well and could not hear all of the people's complaints. Peters protested the lies and exaggerations made to his people such as the promises of no land taxes, land grants withing weeks, and a democratic government. Some of his group of Methodists not only agreed with him, but also wanted him to be the governor of the colony. They decided to have him represent their cause to Superintendent Clarkson.

Clarkson did not look upon Peters petition favorably and felt it was an attack on his authority. He confronted Peters publicly and most of the colony sided with Clarkson. Peters lost much of his influence with the blacks of Sierra Leone. Shortly afterwards, Peters was accused of theft from a dead man. When brought before the courts, Peters explained that he simply collecting a debt for having helped the man escape from slavery. A jury of his fellow blacks didn't think much of this explanation, and convicted him. Soon after Peters grew sick and died; a humbling end to a glorious life. The Sierra Leone Company still refused to allow the settlers to take freehold of the land. Some of the Settlers revolted in 1799. The revolt was only put down by the arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons, who also arrived via Nova Scotia. The “Nova Scotians” quickly came to dominate life in Sierra Leone, which was largely self-governing until 1801.

 

From - FinalCall.com News {Founded by Louis Farrakhan}.

 

According to Jewish scholar Dr. Harold Brackman, during the 1600s “slave trading in Brazil became a ‘Jewish' mercantile specialty in much the same way it had been in early medieval Europe.” In fact, wrote Jewish scholar Jonathan Schorsch, “Jewish merchants routinely possessed enormous numbers of slaves temporarily before selling them off.” If a slave auction fell on a Jewish holiday it was postponed due to lack of buyers and sellers!

The Jewish Encyclopedia adds that “Jewish commercial activity” in this time included a “monopoly of the slave trade.” Jewish traders bought Africans in lots from the Trans-Atlantic shippers and retailed them to inland plantation owners.

The Jews of Surinam gave their slave plantations Hebrew names such as Machanayim, Nachamu, and Goshen. According to Dr. Marcus Arkin, they used “many thousands” of Black slaves. Rabbi Herbert I. Bloom added that the “slave trade was one of the most important Jewish activities ...” In 1694, Jews owned 9,000 Africans, and by 1791 there were 100 “Jewish mulattoes” in Surinam—the result of the rape of African women by their Jewish enslavers.

The prominent Jewish historian Dr. Cecil Roth wrote that the slave revolts in parts of South America “were largely directed against [Jews], as being the greatest slave-holders of the region.” Jews set up militias with the sole purpose of fighting the Black Maroons, the escaped Africans who were fighting to free their enslaved brethren.

The first Hebrew poem written in the New World was an attack on the Black Maroon leader. The Jewish militias murdered the Maroons and cut off their hands to award as trophies.

 

Suriname (formerly Dutch Guiana)

The Dutch captured the British colony of Suriname (formerly Dutch Guiana) during the Second Anglo-Dutch War(1667), and under the WIC it was developed as a plantation slave society. It was a primary destination for the Dutch slave trade, yet unusually it never experienced a general slave rebellion. The regime was one of extreme and deliberate brutality, even by the standards of the time. Mortality was so high that although 300,000 slaves were imported between 1668 and 1823, the ravaged population was never able to grow beyond a figure of 50,000. 'Maroonage' emerged as the main method of resistence.

As most of the land was given to the production of sugar cane, The Dutch relied on African slaves. As the country is mostly rain forest, escape was not difficult. Many Africans escaped virtually off the boat. With the help of the native populations they were able to create their own villages and form independent ‘tribes’. Among the various African tribes in Suriname are the Saramaka, Paramaka, Ndyuka, Kwinti, Aluka and Matawai. These ‘Maroons’ as they were called by the Spanish, raided plantations, freed more slaves, and killed many planters.

Unable to militarily defeat them, the Dutch formed treaties which gave the Maroons sovereign status over the land they occupied and various trading rights. In 1760 the Treaty of Ouca guaranteed the autonomy of these Maroons. They were the first peoples of the Americas to gain independence from colonial control. Slavery was officially abolished in 1863 but it wasn’t until 1873 the slaves were released after a ten year transition period. As soon as they gained their freedom, the ex-slaves left the plantation for the city of Paramaribo. The various tribes continue to live in Suriname as they have for hundreds of years.

The Scottish-Dutch soldier John Gabriel Stedman witnessed the oppression of the slaves during a campaign against the maroons in 1774. His book a Narrative of a Five Years Expedition Against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam, with vivid illustrations by William Blake and Francesco Bartolozzi was taken to heart by abolitionists.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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